Abstract
This study explored empathy and social perspective taking in 8 to 12 year old children with and without Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The sample comprised 92 children, 50 with a diagnosis of ADHD and 42 typically developing comparison children. Although children with ADHD were rated by their parents as less empathic than children without ADHD, this difference was accounted for by co-occurring oppositional and conduct problems among children in the ADHD sample. Children with ADHD used lower levels of social perspective taking coordination in their definition of problems, identification of feelings, and evaluation of outcomes than children without ADHD, and these differences persisted after the role of language abilities, intelligence and oppositional and conduct problems were taken into account. Girls were more empathic and had higher overall social perspective taking scores than boys. Implications for research and practice are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach, T. M. (2001). Manual for child behavior checklist. Burlington, VT: University Associates in Psychiatry.
Antshel, K. M., & Remer, R. (2003). Social skills training in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A randomized–controlled trial. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 153–165.
Astington, J. W., & Baird, J. A. (Eds.). (2005). Why language matters for theory of mind. New York: Oxford University Press.
Barkley, R. A. (2006). A theory of ADHD. In R. A. Barkley (Ed.), Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford.
Braaten, E. B., & Rosen, L. A. (2000). Self-regulation of affect in attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and non-ADHD boys: Differences in empathic responding. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 313–321. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.313.
Bryant, B. K. (1982). An index of empathy for children and adolescents. Child Development, 53, 413–425. doi:10.2307/1128984.
Cervantes, C. A., & Callanan, M. A. (1998). Labels and explanations in mother–child emotion talk: Age and gender differentiation. Developmental Psychology, 34, 88–98. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.88.
Chandler, M. J. (1973). Egocentrism and antisocial behavior: The assessment and training of social perspective-taking skills. Developmental Psychology, 9, 326–332. doi:10.1037/h0034974.
Chandler, M. J., Greenspan, S., & Barenboim, C. (1974). Assessment and training of role-taking and referential communication skills in institutionalized emotionally disturbed children. Developmental Psychology, 10, 546–553. doi:10.1037/h0036735.
Charman, T., Ruffman, T., & Clements, W. (2002). Is there a gender difference in false belief development? Social Development, 11, 1–10. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00183.
Cohen, N. J., Kershner, J., & Wehrspann, W. (1985). Characteristics of social cognition in children with different symptom patters. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 6, 277–290. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(85)90002-4.
Cohen, N. J., Menna, R., Vallance, D. D., Barwick, M. A., Im, N., & Horodezky, N. B. (1998). Language, social cognitive processing, and behavioral characteristics of psychiatrically disturbed children with previously identified and unsuspected language impairments. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 39, 853–864. doi:10.1017/S0021963098002789.
Conners, C. K. (1997). Conners’ ratings scales—revised: Technical manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
Cunningham, C. E., & Siegel, L. S. (1987). Peer interactions of normal and attention-deficit-disordered boys during free-play, cooperative task, and simulated classroom situations. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 247–268. doi:10.1007/BF00916353.
de Wied, M., Goudena, P. P., & Matthys, W. (2005). Empathy in boys with disruptive behaviors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 46, 867–880. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00389.x.
Diener, M. B., & Milich, R. (1997). Effects of positive feedback on the social interactions of boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A test of the self-protective hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 256–265. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2603_4.
Dyck, M. J., Ferguson, K., & Shocher, I. M. (2001). Do autism spectrum disorders differ from each other and from non-spectrum disorders in emotion recognition tests? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 10, 105–116. doi:10.1007/s007870170033.
Eisenberg, N., & Fabes, R. A. (1998). Prosocial development. In W. Damon, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology, Vol. 3: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 701–778, 5th ed.). New York: Wiley.
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Schaller, M., Miller, P. A., Carlo, G., Poulin, R., et al. (1991). Personality and socialization correlates of vicarious emotional responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 459–470. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.459.
Eisenberg, N., & Lennon, R. (1983). Sex differences in empathy and related capacities. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 100–131. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.94.1.100.
Eisenberg, N., & Miller, P. A. (1987). The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 91–119. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91.
Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., & Sadovsky, A. (2006). Empathy-related responding in children. In M. Killen, & J. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (pp. 517–549). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Eisenberg-Berg, N., & Lennon, R. (1980). Altruism and the assessment of empathy in the preschool years. Child Development, 51, 552–557. doi:10.2307/1129290.
Enebrink, P., Andershed, H., & Langstrom, N. (2005). Callous-unemotional traits are associated with clinical severity in referred boys with conduct disorder. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59, 431–440. doi:10.1080/08039480500360690.
Enright, R. D., & Lapsley, D. K. (1980). Social role taking: A review of the constructs, measures, and measurement properties. Review of Educational Research, 50, 647–674.
Greene, R. W., Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Ouellette, C., Penn, C., et al. (1996). Toward a new psychometric definition of social disability in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 571–578. doi:10.1097/00004583-199605000-00011.
Gresham, F. M., Lane, K. L., & Beebe-Frankenberger, M. (2005). Predictors of hyperactive–impulsive–inattention and conduct problem: A comparative follow-back investigation. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 721–736. doi:10.1002/pits.20117.
Grizenko, N., Zappitelli, M., Langevin, J. P., Hrychko, S., El-Messidi, A., Kaminester, D., et al. (2000). Effectiveness of a social skills training program using self/other perspective taking: A nine-month follow-up. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 501–509. doi:10.1037/h0087662.
Hastings, P. D., Zahn-Waxler, C., Robinson, J., Usher, B., & Bridges, D. (2000). The development of concern for others in children with behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 36, 531–546. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.531.
Hoffman, M. L. (2000). Empathy and moral development: Implications for caring and justice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Pelham, W. E., et al. (2004). Self-perceptions of competence in children with ADHD and comparison children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 382–391. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.382.
Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Mrug, S., Hinshaw, S. P., Bukowski, W. M., et al. (2005). Peer-assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 74–86. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3401_7.
Hymel, S., Bowker, A., & Woody, E. (1993). Aggressive versus withdrawn unpopular children: Variations in peer and self-perceptions in multiple domains. Child Development, 64, 879–896. doi:10.2307/1131224.
Karniol, R., Gabay, R., Ochion, Y., & Harari, Y. (1998). Is gender or gender-role orientation a better predictor of empathy in adolescence? Sex Roles, 39, 45–59. doi:10.1023/A:1018825732154.
Kochanska, G. (1992). My child, version 2: A preliminary manual. Iowa City: Department of Psychology.
Kochanska, G., DeVet, K., Goldman, M., Murray, K., & Putman, S. P. (1994). Maternal reports of conscience development and temperament in young children. Child Development, 65, 852–868. doi:10.2307/1131423.
Kovac, I., Garabedian, B., Du Souich, C., & Palmour, R. M. (2001). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in SLI children increases risk of speech/language disorders in first-degree relatives: A preliminary report. Journal of Communication Disorders, 34, 339–354. doi:10.1016/S0021-9924(01)00054-5.
Kuntsi, J., Eley, T. C., Taylor, A., Hughes, C., Asherson, P., Caspi, A., et al. (2004). Co-occurrence of ADHD and low IQ has genetic origins. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 124, 41–47.
Landau, S., Milich, R., & Diener, M. B. (1998). Peer relations of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Reading and Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 14, 83–105.
Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2004). A meta-analysis of working memory in children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of American Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 377–384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73.
Matthys, W., Cuperus, J. M., & van Engeland, H. (1999). Deficient social problem-solving in boys with ODD/CD, with ADHD, and with both disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 311–321. doi:10.1097/00004583-199903000-00019.
Menna, R., & Cohen, N. J. (1997). Social perspective taking. In M. McCallum, & W. E. Piper (Eds.), Psychological mindedness: A contemporary understanding (pp. 189–210). NJ: Erlbaum.
Milich, R., Balentine, A. C., & Lyman, D. R. (2001). ADHD combined type and ADHD predominantly inattentive type are distinct and unrelated disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8, 463–488. doi:10.1093/clipsy/8.4.463.
Miller, G. A., & Chapman, J. P. (2001). Misunderstanding of analysis of covariance. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 40–48. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.1.40.
Nigg, J. T., Willcutt, E. G., Doyle, A. E., & Songua-Barke, E. J. S. (2005). Causal heterogeneity in attention/deficit hyperactivity disorder: Do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biological Psychiatry, 5, 1224–1230. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025.
Olweus, D., & Endresen, I. M. (1998). The importance of sex-of-stimulus object: Age trends and sex differences in empathic responsiveness. Social Development, 7, 370–388. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00073.
Owens, J. S., & Hoza, B. (2003). The role of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in the positive illusory bias. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 680–691. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.680.
Pelham, W. E., & Bender, M. E. (1982). Peer relations in hyperactive children: Description and treatment. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, 1, 365–436.
Renz, K., Lorch, E. P., Milich, R., Lemberger, C., Bordner, A., & Welsh, R. (2003). On-line story representation in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 31, 93–104.
Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Cognitive applications (4th ed.). La Mesa, CA: Sattler.
Schneider, W., Schumann-Hengsteler, R., & Sodian, B. (2005). Young children’s cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability, and theory of mind. NJ: Erlbaum.
Schultz, L. H., Yeates, K. O., & Selman, R. L. (1989). The interpersonal negotiation strategies (INS) interview: A scoring manual. Cambridge, MS: Harvard Graduate School of Education.
Selman, R. (1971). Taking another’s perspective: Role-taking development in early childhood. Child Development, 42, 1721–1734. doi:10.2307/1127580.
Selman, R. L. (2003). Social awareness: The growth of interpersonal understanding. In R. L. Selman (Ed.), The promotion of social awareness: Powerful lessons from the partnership of developmental theory and classroom practice. NY: Sage.
Selman, R. L., Beaderslee, W., Schultz, L. H., Krupa, M., & Podorefsky, D. (1986). Assessing adolescent interpersonal negotiation strategies: Toward the integration of structural and functional models. Developmental Psychology, 22, 450–459. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.4.450.
Selman, R. L., Jacquette, D., & Lavin, D. R. (1977). Interpersonal awareness in children: Toward an integration of developmental and clinical child psychology. The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 47, 264–274.
Semel, E., Wiig, E. H., & Secord, W. A. (2003). Clinical evaluation of language fundamentals—fourth edition (CELF-4). San Antonio, TX: A Harcourt Assessment.
Staub, E., & Eisenberg, N. (1981). Social cognition, affect, and behavior: An essay and review of Robert Selman’s “The growth of interpersonal understanding: Developmental and clinical analyses”. Developmental Review, 1, 385–400. doi:10.1016/0273-2297(81)90033-2.
Strayer, J., & Roberts, W. (1997). Facial and verbal measures of children’s emotions and empathy. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20, 627–649. doi:10.1080/016502597385090.
Underwood, B., & Moore, B. (1982). Perspective-taking and altruism. Psychological Bulletin, 91, 143–173. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.91.1.143.
Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2003). Treating conduct problems and strengthening social and emotional competence in young children: The dina dinosaur treatment program. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 11, 130–143. doi:10.1177/10634266030110030101.
Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Wechsler, D. (2003). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
Yeates, K. O., Schultz, L. H., & Selman, R. L. (1990). Bridging the gaps in child-clinical assessment: Toward the application of social-cognitive developmental theory. Clinical Psychology Review, 10, 567–588. doi:10.1016/0272-7358(90)90097-T.
Yeates, K. O., Schultz, L. H., & Selman, R. L. (1991). The development of interpersonal negotiation strategies in thought and action: A social-cognitive link to behavioral adjustment and social status. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 37, 369–405.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
This research was funded by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC).
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Marton, I., Wiener, J., Rogers, M. et al. Empathy and Social Perspective Taking in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. J Abnorm Child Psychol 37, 107–118 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9262-4
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9262-4