Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Habitual Sleep, Reasoning, and Processing Speed in Older Adults with Sleep Complaints

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Cognitive Therapy and Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The relationship between habitual sleep and cognition in older adults with sleep complaints is poorly understood, because research has focused on younger adults, used experimental or retrospective quasi-experimental designs, and generally produced equivocal results. Prospective studies using sleep diaries are rare, but may provide important insights into this relationship as they offer greater ecological validity and allow for examination of the impact of night-to-night variability in sleep (an often overlooked aspect of sleep) on cognitive performance. Seventy-two older adults (M age = 70.18 years, SDage = 7.09 years) completed fourteen consecutive days of sleep diaries and paper/pencil self-administered cognitive tasks, including measures of processing speed (Symbol Digit) and reasoning (Letter Series). Regression analyses revealed increased average total wake time (TWT) during the night was associated with higher Symbol Digit scores, β = 0.45, P < 0.05. Night-to-night variability in either total sleep time (TST) or TWT was not associated with either cognitive measure. Implications and potential explanations for these initially counterintuitive findings are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allaire, J. C., & Marsiske, M. (2005). Intraindividual variability may not always indicate vulnerability in elders’ cognitive performance. Psychology and Aging, 20, 390–401.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Altena, E., Van Der Werf, Y. D., Strijers, R. L. M., & Van Someren, E. J. W. (2008a). Sleep loss affects vigilance: Effects of chronic insomnia and sleep therapy. Journal of Sleep Research, 17(3), 335–343.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Altena, E., Werf, Y. D. V. D., Sanz-Arigita, E. J., Voorn, T. A., Rombouts, S. A. R. B., Kuijer, J. P. A., et al. (2008b). Prefrontal hypoactivation and recovery in insomnia. Sleep: Journal of Sleep Research & Sleep Medicine, 31(9), 1271–1276.

    Google Scholar 

  • Altena, E., Ramautar, J. R., Van Der Werf, Y. D., & Van Someren, E. J. (2010). Do sleep complaints contribute to age-related cognitive decline? Progress in Brain Research, 185, 181–205.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bastien, C. H., Fortier-Brochu, E., Rioux, I., LeBlanc, M., Daley, M., Morin, C. M., et al. (2003). Cognitive performance and sleep quality in the elderly suffering from chronic insomnia. Relationship between objective and subjective measures. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 54(1), 39–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck depression inventory-II (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Binks, P. G., Waters, W. F., & Hurry, M. (1999). Short-term total sleep deprivations does not selectively impair higher cortical functioning. Sleep, 22(3), 328–334.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bixler, E. O., Kales, A., Jacoby, J. A., Soldatos, C. R., & Vela-Bueno, A. (1984). Nocturnal sleep and wakefulness: Effects of age and sex in normal sleepers. International Journal of Neuroscience, 23(1), 33–42.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonnet, M. H., & Arand, D. L. (2010). Hyperarousal and insomnia: State of the science. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(1), 9–15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brezinova, V. (1975). The number and duration of the episodes of the various EEG stages of sleep in young and older people. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol, 39(3), 273–278.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, S. W., Silva, E. J., Chang, A. M., Ronda, J. M., & Duffy, J. F. (2011). One night of sleep deprivation affects reaction time, but not interference or facilitation in a Stroop task. Brain and Cognition, 76(1), 37–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carskadon, M. A., Brown, E. D., & Dement, W. C. (1982). Sleep fragmentation in the elderly: Relationship to daytime sleep tendency. Neurobiology of Aging, 3(4), 321–327.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, M. J., & Keller, B. (1993). Alert insomniacs: Are they really sleep deprived? Clinical Psychology Review, 13(7), 649–666.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake, C. L., Roehrs, T. A., Burduvali, E., Bonahoom, A., Rosekind, M., & Roth, T. (2001). Effects of rapids versus slow accumulation of eight hours of sleep loss. Psychophysiologu, 38, 979–987.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drummond, S. P., Brown, G. G., Stricker, J. L., Buxton, R. B., Wong, E. C., & Gillin, J. C. (1999). Sleep deprivation-induced reduction in cortical functional response to serial subtraction. Neuroreport, 10(18), 3745–3748.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Drummond, S. P., Brown, G. G., Gillin, J. C., Stricker, J. L., Wong, E. C., & Buxton, R. B. (2000). Altered brain response to verbal learning following sleep deprivation. Nature, 403(6770), 655–657.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Edinger, J. D., Marsh, G. R., Mccall, W. V., Erwin, C. W., Lininger, A. W., & Assoc, A. S. D. (1991). Sleep variability across consecutive nights of home monitoring in older mixed dims patients. Sleep, 14(1), 13–17.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Espie, C. A. (1991). The psychological treatment of insomnia. Chichesster, UK: J. Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foley, D. J., Monjan, A. A., Brown, S. L., Simonsick, E. M., Wallace, R. B., & Blazer, D. G. (1995). Sleep complaints among elderly persons: An epidemiologic study of three communities. Sleep, 18(6), 425–432.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & Mchugh, P. R. (1975). Mini-mental state—practical method for grading cognitive state of patients for clinician. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12(3), 189–198.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gillin, J. C., Duncan, W. C., Murphy, D. L., Post, R. M., Wehr, T. A., Goodwin, F. K., et al. (1981). Age-related changes in sleep in depressed and normal subjects. Psychiatry Research, 4(1), 73–78.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, Y., & Horne, J. A. (1997). Sleep deprivation affects speech. Sleep, 20(10), 871–877.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, Y., & Horne, J. A. (1999). One night of sleep loss impairs innovative thinking and flexible decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 78(2), 128–145.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, Y., & Horne, J. A. (2000). The impact of sleep deprivation on decision making: A review. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 6, 236–249.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Horne, J. A. (1988). Sleep loss and “divergent” thinking ability. Sleep, 11(6), 528–536.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howden, L. M. & Meyer, J. A. (2011). Age and sex composition: 2010 census briefs. U.S. department of commerce, economics and statistics administration, U.S. Census Bureau.

  • Jones, K., & Harrison, Y. (2001). Frontal lobe function, sleep loss and fragmented sleep. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 5, 463–475.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kronholm, E., Sallinen, M., Suutama, T., Sulkava, R., Era, P., & Partonen, T. (2009). Self-reported sleep duration and cognitive functioning in the general population. Journal of Sleep Research, 18(4), 436–446.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lezak, M. D. (1995). Neuropsychological assessment (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichstein, K. L., Riedel, B. W., Lester, K. W., & Aguillard, R. N. (1999a). Occult sleep apnea in a recruited sample of older adults with insomnia. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(3), 405–410.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lichstein, K. L., Riedel, B. W., & Means, M. K. (1999b). Psychological treatment of late-life insomnia. In R. Schulz, G. Maddox, & M. P. Lawton (Eds.), Annual review of gerontology and geriatrics. Focus on interventions research with older adults (Vol. 18). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lichstein, K. L., Wilson, N. M., Noe, S. L., Aguillard, R. N., & Bellur, S. N. (1994). Daytime sleepiness in insomnia: Behavioral, biological and subjective indices. Sleep: Journal of Sleep Research & Sleep Medicine, 17, 693–702.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • May, J., & Kline, P. (1987). Measuring the effects upon cognitive-abilities of sleep loss during continuous operations. British Journal of Psychology, 78, 443–455.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy, K. J. M. (2004). Understanding the transition from normal cognitive aging to mild cognitive impairment: Comparing the intraindividual variability in cognitive function. Doctoral dissertation, clinical and health psychology, University of Florida.

  • Mccrae, C. S., Mcnamara, J. P. H., Rowe, M. A., Dzierzewski, J. M., Dirk, J., Marsiske, M., et al. (2008). Sleep and affect in older adults: using multilevel modeling to examine daily associations. Journal of Sleep Research, 17(1), 42–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Naismith, S. L., Rogers, N. L., Makcenzie, J., Norrie, L. M., & Lewis, S. J. G. (2010). Sleep well, think well: Sleep-wake disturbances in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry and Neurology, 23(2), 123–130.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nebes, R. D., Buysse, D. J., Halligan, E. M., Houck, P. R., & Monk, T. H. (2009). Self-reported sleep quality predicts poor cognitive performance in healthy older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B-Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 64(2), 180–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oosterman, J. M., van Someren, E. J. W., Vogels, R. L. C., van Harten, B., & Scherder, E. J. A. (2009). Fragmentation of the rest-activity rhythm correlates with age-related cognitive deficits. Journal of Sleep Research, 18(1), 129–135.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pace-Schott, E. F., Hutcherson, C. A., Bemporad, B., Morgan, A., Kumar, A., Hobson, J. A., et al. (2009). Failure to find executive function deficits following one night’s total sleep deprivation in university students under naturalistic conditions. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 7(3), 136–163.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pilcher, J. J., Band, D., Odle-Dusseau, H. N., & Muth, E. R. (2007). Human performance under sustained operations and acute sleep deprivation conditions: Toward a model of controlled attention. Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine, 78, B15–B24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ram, N., & Gerstorf, D. (2009). Time-structured and net intraindividual variability: Tools for examining the development of dynamic characteristics and processes. Psychology and Aging, 24, 778–791.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Riedel, B. W., & Lichstein, K. L. (2000). Insomnia and daytime functioning. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 4(3), 277–298.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Artalejo, F., Faubel, R., Lopez-Garcia, E., Guallar-Castillon, P., Graciani, A., & Banegas, J. R. (2009). Usual sleep duration and cognitive function in older adults in Spain. Journal of Sleep Research, 18(4), 427–435.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roth, T., & Ancoli-Israel, S. (1999). Daytime consequences and correlates of insomnia in the United States: Results of the 1991 National Sleep Foundation Survey, II. Sleep, 22(2), S354–S358.

  • Smith, A. (1982). Symbol digit modalities test—revised: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thurstone, T. G. (1962). Primary mental ability for Grades 9–12 (Revised ed.). Chicago, IL: Science Research Associates.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tworoger, S. S., Lee, S., Schernhammer, E. S., & Grodstein, F. (2006). The association of self-reported sleep duration, difficulty sleeping, and snoring with cognitive function in older women. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 20(1), 41–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vance, D. E., Keltner, N. L., McGuinness, N. L., Umlauf, M. G., & Yuan, Y. Y. (2010). The future of cognitive remediation training in older adults. Journal of neuroscience in nursing, 42(5), 255–264.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, W. B. (1985). A further analysis of age and sleep deprivation effects. Psychophysiology, 22(2), 156–161.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, W. B., & Levy, C. M. (1982). Age, sleep-deprivation, and performance. Psychophysiology, 19(3), 272–276.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yesavage, J. A., Brink, T. L., Rose, T. L., Lum, O., Huang, V., Adey, M., et al. (1982). Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17(1), 37–49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Study support was provided by the National Institutes of Health/National Institute on Aging (AG02445; Christina S. McCrae, PhD., PI).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Clinical and Health Psychology, University of Florida, PO Box 100165 (HSC), 101 S. Newell Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0165, USA

    Christina S. McCrae, Karlyn E. Vatthauer, Joseph M. Dzierzewski & Michael Marsiske

Authors
  1. Christina S. McCrae
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Karlyn E. Vatthauer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Joseph M. Dzierzewski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Michael Marsiske
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Christina S. McCrae.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

McCrae, C.S., Vatthauer, K.E., Dzierzewski, J.M. et al. Habitual Sleep, Reasoning, and Processing Speed in Older Adults with Sleep Complaints. Cogn Ther Res 36, 156–164 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9425-4

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-011-9425-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation