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Longitudinal Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms Among Male and Female Adolescents

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Abstract

Using ecological theory and the peer socialization model, the current study identified risk and protective factors associated with internalizing and externalizing symptoms across ecological domains. It was hypothesized that the constellation of risk and protective factors within the peer microsystem would vary by gender: future optimism and negative peer influence were expected to be significant risk/protective factors for males, whereas peer victimization was expected to be significant risk factors among females. Using four waves of data, three-level hierarchical linear models were estimated for males and females. Results revealed that negative peer influence was a particularly salient risk factor for both internalizing and externalizing behaviors among males, although future optimism did not emerge as a significant protective factor. In addition, as hypothesized, peer victimization indicators were significant risk factors for females. Parent–child conflict was also significantly and positively associated with both internalizing and externalizing symptoms for males and females. Implications are discussed.

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Acknowledgments

This study was funded through a cooperative agreement from the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (5 U01 CE001948) to the North Carolina Academic Center for Excellence in Youth Violence Prevention (NC-ACE).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Work, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA

    Katie L. Cotter

  2. School of Social Work, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB # 3550, 325 Pittsboro Street, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599-3550, USA

    Qi Wu & Paul R. Smokowski

  3. School of Social Welfare, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA

    Paul R. Smokowski

Authors
  1. Katie L. Cotter
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  2. Qi Wu
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  3. Paul R. Smokowski
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Correspondence to Katie L. Cotter.

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Cotter, K.L., Wu, Q. & Smokowski, P.R. Longitudinal Risk and Protective Factors Associated with Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms Among Male and Female Adolescents. Child Psychiatry Hum Dev 47, 472–485 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0580-9

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-015-0580-9

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