Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Variation in Sexual Identification Among Behaviorally Bisexual Women in the Midwestern United States: Challenging the Established Methods for Collecting Data on Sexual Identity and Orientation

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Collecting information on sexual identity is critical to ensuring the visibility of minority populations who face stigmatization and discrimination related to sexual identities. However, it is challenging to capture the nuances of sexual identity with traditional survey research methods. Using a mixed-methods approach, we gathered data on the sexual identities of 80 behaviorally bisexual women in the Midwestern United States through an online survey. When provided different types of measures (e.g., open ended and fixed response) and different contexts in which to identify (e.g., private and public), participants varied in how they reported their sexual identities. Qualitative analysis of participant narratives around identity change finds partitioning and ranking of attraction is a key component in understanding behaviorally bisexual women’s identities. We further identify a division regarding the desired outcomes of identity development processes. Given the multiple ways in which participants identified depending upon the type of measure and the context specified, and the variation in identification over time, results support reconsidering the capability of typical measures and methods used in survey research to capture sexual identity information. Additionally, findings highlight the utility of including multiple, context-specific measures of sexual identities in future research.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. As operationalized by van Anders (2015), “gender/sex” is an “umbrella term for both gender (socialization) and sex (biology, evolution) and reflects social locations or identities where gender and sex cannot be easily or at all disentangled” (p. 1181).

References

  • Autumn, E. (2013). Challenging the binary: Sexual identity that is not duality. Journal of Bisexuality, 13, 329–337. doi:10.1080/15299716.2013.813421.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin, A., Dodge, B., Schick, V., Hubach, R. D., Bowling, J., Malebranche, D., … Fortenberry, J. D. (2014). Sexual self-identification among behaviorally bisexual men in the Midwestern United States. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 2015–2026. doi:10.1007/s10508-014-0376-1.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, G. R., & Jairam, J. A. (2008). Are lesbians really women who have sex with women (WSW)? Methodological concerns in measuring sexual orientation in health research. Women and Health, 48, 383–408. doi:10.1080/03630240802575120.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blumstein, P. W., & Schwartz, P. (1976). Bisexuality in women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 5, 171–181. doi:10.1007/BF01541873.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford, M. (2004). The bisexual experience: Living in a dichotomous culture. Journal of Bisexuality, 4, 7–23. doi:10.1300/J159v04n01_02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101. doi:10.1191/1478088706qp063oa.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brekhus, W. (2003). Peacocks, chameleons, centaurs: Gay suburbia and the grammar of social identity. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cass, V. C. (1979). Homosexuality identity formation. Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219–235. doi:10.1300/J082v04n03_01.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cast, A. D. (2003). Identities and behavior. In P. J. Burke, T. J. Owens, R. T. Serpe, & P. A. Thoits (Eds.), Advances in identity theory and research (pp. 41–53). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Chandra, A., Copen, C. E., & Mosher, W. D. (2011). Sexual behavior, sexual attraction, and sexual identity in the United States: Data from the 2006–2008 National Survey of Family Growth. National Health Statistics Reports, No. 36. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

  • Creswell, J. W., Plano Clark, V. L., Gutmann, M. L., & Hanson, W. E. (2003). Advanced mixed methods research designs. In C. Teddlie & A. Tashakkori (Eds.), Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 209–240). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • D’Augelli, A. R., Hershberger, S. L., & Pilkington, N. W. (1998). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth and their families: Disclosure of sexual orientation and its consequences. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 361–371. doi:10.1037/h0080345.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Degges-White, S., Rice, B., & Myers, J. E. (2000). Revisiting Cass’ theory of sexual identity formation: A study of lesbian development. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 22, 318–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2000). Sexual identity, attractions, and behavior among young sexual-minority women over a 2-year period. Developmental Psychology, 36, 241–250. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2003). Was it a phase? Young women’s relinquishment of lesbian/bisexual identities over a 5-year period. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 352–364.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2005). A new view of lesbian subtypes: Stable versus fluid identity trajectories over an 8-year period. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 119–128. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00174.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2006). What we got wrong about sexual identity development: Unexpected findings from a longitudinal study of young women. In A. M. Omoto & H. S. Kurtzman (Eds.), Sexual orientation and mental health: Examining identity and development in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people (pp. 73–94). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2008). Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood: Results from a 10-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 44, 5–14. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M. (2009). Sexual fluidity: Understanding women’s love and desire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, L. M., & Butterworth, M. (2008). Questioning gender and sexual identity: Dynamic links over time. Sex Roles, 59, 365–376.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eisner, S. (2013). Bi: Notes for a bisexual revolution. Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Esterberg, K. G. (1997). Lesbian and bisexual identities: Constructing communities, constructing selves. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everett, B. G. (2013). Sexual orientation disparities in sexually transmitted infections: Examining the intersection between sexual identity and sexual behavior. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 225–236. doi:10.1007/s10508-012-9902-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Friedman, M. R., Dodge, B., Schick, V., Herbenick, D., Hubach, R., Bowling, J., … Reece, M. (2014). From BIAS to bisexual health disparities: Attitudes toward bisexual men and women in the United States. LGBT Health, 1, 309–318. doi:10.1089/lgbt.2014.0005.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herbenick, D., Reece, M., Schick, V., Sanders, S. A., Dodge, B., & Fortenberry, J. D. (2010). Sexual behavior in the United States: Results from a national probability sample of men and women ages 14–94. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 7, 255–265. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.02012.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Institute of Medicine. (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

  • Jenkins, R. (2014). Social identity. New York, NY: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia, PA: W B Saunders Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E., & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Philadelphia, PA: W B Saunders Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klein, F. (1978). The bisexual option: A concept of one hundred percent intimacy. New York, NY: Harrington Park Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindley, L. L., Walsemann, K. M., & Carter, J. W. (2013). Invisible and at risk: STDs among young adult sexual minority women in the United States. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 45, 66–73. doi:10.1363/4506613.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLean, K. (2007). Hiding in the closet? Bisexuals, coming out and the disclosure imperative. Journal of Sociology, 43, 151–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Miller, S. D., Taylor, V., & Rupp, L. J. (2016). Social movements and the construction of queer identity. In J. E. Stets & R. T. Serpe (Eds.), New directions in identity theory and research (pp. 443–469). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Mustanski, B., Birkett, M., Greene, G. J., Rosario, M., Bostwick, W., & Everett, B. G. (2014). The association between sexual orientation identity and behavior across race/ethnicity, sex, and age in a probability sample of sigh school students. American Journal of Public Health, 104, 237–244. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2013.301451.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ochs, R., & Williams, H. S. (Eds.). (2014). Recognize: The voices of bisexual men. Boston, MA: Bisexual Resource Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pathela, P., Hajat, A., Schillinger, J., Blank, S., Sell, R., & Mostashari, F. (2006). Discordance between sexual behavior and self-reported sexual identity: A population-based survey of New York City men. Annals of Internal Medicine, 145, 416–425. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-145-6-200609190-00005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reinisch, J. M., Sanders, S. A., & Ziemba-Davis, M. (1988). The study of sexual behavior in relation to the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: Caveats and recommendations. American Psychologist, 43, 921–927. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.43.11.921.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ridolfo, H., Miller, K., & Maitland, A. (2012). Measuring sexual identity using survey questionnaires: How valid are our measures? Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 9, 113–124. doi:10.1007/s13178-011-0074-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., Hunter, J., & Braun, L. (2006). Sexual identity development among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time. Journal of Sex Research, 43, 46–58. doi:10.1080/00224490609552298.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rupp, L., & Taylor, V. (2013). Queer girls on campus: New intimacies and sexual identities. In P. T. Clough, S. Seidman, & A. Frank (Eds.), Intimacies: A new world of relational life (pp. 82–97). New York: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rust, P. C. (1992). The politics of sexual identity: Sexual attraction and behavior among lesbian and bisexual women. Social Problems, 39, 366–386. doi:10.2307/3097016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rust, P. C. (1993). “Coming out” in the age of social constructionism: Sexual identity formation among lesbian and bisexual women. Gender and Society, 7, 50–77. doi:10.1177/089124393007001004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rust, P. C. (2002). Bisexuality: The state of the union. Annual Review of Sex Research, 13, 180–240.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandfort, T. G., & Dodge, B. (2008). “… And then there was the down low”: Introduction to Black and Latino male bisexualities. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37, 675–682. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9359-4.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (2001). A critique of research on sexual-minority youths. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 5–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. (2005). The new gay teen: Shunning labels. The Gay and Lesbian Review Worldwide, 12, 16–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C., & Ream, G. L. (2007). Prevalence and stability of sexual orientation components during adolescence and young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 385–394. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9088-5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schick, V., Herbenick, D., Rosenberger, J. G., & Reece, M. (2012a). Variations in the sexual repertoires of bisexually-identified women from the United States and the United Kingdom. Journal of Bisexuality, 12, 198–213. doi:10.1080/15299716.2012.674856.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schick, V., Rosenberger, J. G., Herbenick, D., & Reece, M. (2012b). Sexual behaviour and risk reduction strategies among a multinational sample of women who have sex with women. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 88, 407–412. doi:10.1136/sextrans-2011-050404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, D. A., & Anderson, L. (1987). Identity work among the homeless: The verbal construction and avowal of personal identities. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 1336–1371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Steckler, A., McLeroy, K. R., Goodman, R. M., Bird, S. T., & McCormick, L. (1992). Toward integrating qualitative and quantitative methods: An introduction. Health Education Quarterly, 19, 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (Eds.). (2010). Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  • Thompson, E. M., & Morgan, E. M. (2008). “Mostly straight” young women: Variations in sexual behavior and identity development. Developmental Psychology, 44, 15–21. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vaccaro, A. (2009). Intergenerational perceptions, similarities and differences: A comparative analysis of lesbian, gay, and bisexual millennial youth with generation x and baby boomers. Journal of LGBT Youth, 6, 113–134. doi:10.1080/19361650902899124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • van Anders, S. M. (2015). Beyond sexual orientation: Integrating gender/sex and diverse sexualities via sexual configurations theory. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 5, 1177–1213. doi:10.1007/s10508-015-0490-8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., & Pryor, D. W. (1995). Dual attraction: Understanding bisexuality. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1, 125–151. doi:10.1177/0891243287001002002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yauch, C. A., & Steudel, H. J. (2003). Complementary use of qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment methods. Organizational Research Methods, 6, 465–481. doi:10.1177/1094428103257362.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, R. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2005). The trouble with “MSM” and “WSW”: Erasure of the sexual minority person in public health discourse. American Journal of Public Health, 95, 1144–1149. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.046714.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ziemba-Davis, M., Sanders, S. A., & Reinisch, J. M. (1996). Lesbians’ sexual interactions with men: Behavioral bisexuality and risk for sexually transmitted disease (STD) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Women’s Health, 2, 61–74.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This study was funded by a Developmental Award from the American Sexually Transmitted Disease Association.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Kinesiology, California State University Stanislaus, One University Circle, Turlock, CA, 95382, USA

    Aleta Baldwin

  2. Division of Management, Policy and Community Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX, USA

    Vanessa R. Schick

  3. Department of Applied Health Science, Center for Sexual Health Promotion, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Brian Dodge & Debby Herbenick

  4. School of Medicine, University of Alabama-Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA

    Barbara van Der Pol

  5. The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender and Reproduction, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA

    Stephanie A. Sanders

  6. Division of Adolescent Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA

    J. Dennis Fortenberry

Authors
  1. Aleta Baldwin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Vanessa R. Schick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Brian Dodge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Barbara van Der Pol
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Debby Herbenick
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Stephanie A. Sanders
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. J. Dennis Fortenberry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aleta Baldwin.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

All authors declares that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Baldwin, A., Schick, V.R., Dodge, B. et al. Variation in Sexual Identification Among Behaviorally Bisexual Women in the Midwestern United States: Challenging the Established Methods for Collecting Data on Sexual Identity and Orientation. Arch Sex Behav 46, 1337–1348 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0817-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0817-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation