Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Moderators of the Relationship Between Internalized Homophobia and Risky Sexual Behavior in Men Who Have Sex with Men: A Meta-Analysis

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Research on internalized homophobia (IH) has consistently linked it to both mental and physical health outcomes, while research on its relationships with other variables has been inconsistent. Some research and theory support the association between IH and risky sexual behavior, but much of this research has been plagued by methodological issues, varying measures, and has produced inconsistent findings. Coming to a better understanding of the utility of IH as a potential mechanism or predictor of risky sex in men who have sex with men (MSM) may help to inform future studies of HIV risk in this population as well as the development of prevention interventions. The current study used hierarchical linear modeling to perform meta-analysis combining effect sizes across multiple studies of the relationships between IH and risky sexual behavior. Additionally, the use of multilevel modeling techniques allowed for the evaluation of the moderating effects of age, year of data collection, and publication type on this relationship. Sixteen studies were meta-analyzed for the relationship between IH and risky sexual behavior (N = 2,837), revealing a small overall effect size for this relationship. However, a significant moderating effect was found for the year of data collection, such that the correlation between these two variables has decreased over time. The current utility of this construct for understanding sexual risk taking of MSM is called into question.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, V. (1981). Minority stress and lesbian women. Lexington, KY: Lexington Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broverman, N. (2006, February 14). By the numbers: Gay rights. The Advocate, 36.

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004a). Cases of HIV infection and AIDS in the United States, 2004. Atlanta, GA: United States Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2004b). Trends in reportable sexually transmitted diseases in the United States: National data on chlamydia, gonorrhea and syphilis. Atlanta, GA: United States Department of Health and Human Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008). HIV prevalence estimates-United States, 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 57, 1073–1076.

    Google Scholar 

  • Currie, M. R., Cunningham, E. G., & Findlay, B. M. (2004). The Short Internalized Homonegativity Scale: Examination of the factorial structure of a new measure of internalized homophobia. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 1053–1067.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dew, B. J., & Chaney, M. P. (2005). The relationship among sexual compulsivity, internalized homophobia, and HIV at-risk sexual behavior in gay and bisexual users of Internet chat rooms. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 12, 259–273.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DiPlacido, J. (1998). Minority stress among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: A consequence of heterosexism, homophobia, and stigmatization. In G. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation (pp. 138–159). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drumwright, L. N., Patterson, T. L., & Strathdee, S. A. (2006). Club drugs as causal risk factors for HIV acquisition among men who have sex with men: A review. Substance Use & Misuse, 41, 1551–1601.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dudley, M. G., Rostosky, S. S., Korfhage, B. A., & Zimmerman, R. S. (2004). Correlates of high risk sexual behavior among young men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 328–340.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farnsworth, T. O. (2003). The relationship of internalized homophobia, religiosity, and self-destructive behaviors in self-identified gay men. Dissertation Abstracts International, 63, 5512.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, R., & Mustanski, B. (2005). [The relationship between internalized homophobia, psychological distress and sexual behavior in LGB youth]. Unpublished raw data.

  • glsen.org. (2007). As students return to school, more than 3,600 GSAs now registered with GLSEN. Retrieved June 19, 2009, from http://www.glsen.org/cgi-bin/iowa/all/news/record/2216.html

  • Goldberg, D. A. (1989). A study of the influence of self esteem, internalized homophobia, safer sex knowledge, and anxiety on sexual satisfaction in single gay males practicing safer sex. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50, 1645.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gonsiorek, J. (1988). Mental health issues of gay and lesbian adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 9, 114–122.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higgins, D. (2002). [The relationship between internalized homophobia and risky sexual behavior in gay men previously in heterosexual marriages]. Unpublished raw data.

  • Huebner, D. M., Davis, M. C., Nemeroff, C. J., & Aiken, L. S. (2002). The impact of internalized homophobia on HIV preventive interventions. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 327–348.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jurek, M. R. (1999). Psychosocial factors predicting high risk sexual behavior in HIV-negative gay men (immune deficiency). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 2947.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kashubeck-West, S., & Szymanski, D. M. (2008). Risky sexual behavior in gay and bisexual men: Internalized heterosexism, sensation seeking, and substance use. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 595–614.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lipsey, M. W., & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loftus, J. (2001). America’s liberalization in attitudes toward homosexuality, 1973 to 1998. American Sociological Review, 66, 762–782.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayfield, W. (2001). The development of an internalized homonegativity inventory for gay men. Journal of Homosexuality, 41, 53–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health is lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H., & Dean, L. (1995). Patterns of sexual behavior and risk taking among young New York City gay men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 7(Suppl), 13–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Meyer, I. H., & Dean, L. (1998). Internalized homophobia, intimacy and sexual behaviour among gay and bisexual men. In G. Herek (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation (pp. 160–186). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Newcomb, M. E., & Mustanski, B. (2009). Internalized homophobia and mental health: A meta-analytic review. Unpublished manuscript, University of Illinois at Chicago.

  • Nungesser, L. (1983). Homosexual acts, actors, and identities. New York: Praeger.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preston, B. P., D’Augelli, A. R., Cassab, C. D., Cain, R. E., Schulze, F. W., & Starks, M. T. (2004). The influence of stigma on the sexual risk behavior of rural men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 16, 291–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preston, B. P., D’Augelli, A. R., Cassab, C. D., & Starks, M. T. (2007). The relationship of stigma to the sexual risk behavior of rural men who have sex with men. AIDS Education and Prevention, 19, 218–230.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ratti, R., Bakeman, R., & Peterson, J. L. (2000). Correlates of high-risk sexual behaviour among Canadian men of South Asian and European origin who have sex with men. AIDS Care, 12, 193–202.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2002). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M., Hunter, J., Maguen, S., Gwadz, M., & Smith, R. (2001). The coming-out process and its adaptational and health-related associations among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Stipulation and exploration of a model. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 133–160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rosario, M., Scrimshaw, E. W., & Hunter, J. (2006). A model of sexual risk behaviors among gay and bisexual men: Longitudinal associations of mental health, substance abuse, sexual abuse, and the coming-out process. AIDS Education and Prevention, 18, 444–460.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, M. W., & Rosser, B. R. (1996). Measurement and correlates of internalized homophobia: A factor analytic study. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 52, 15–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russell, G. M., & Bohan, J. S. (2006). The case of internalized homophobia: Theory and/as practice. Theory & Psychology, 16, 343–366.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C. (2008). Then and now: Recruitment, definition, diversity, and positive attributes of same-sex populations. Developmental Psychology, 44, 135–138.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Savin-Williams, R. C., & Ream, G. L. (2007). Prevalence and stability of sexual orientation components during adolescence and young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 385–394.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seibt, A. C., Ross, M. W., Freeman, A., & Krepcho, M. (1995). Relationship between safe sex and acculturation into the gay subculture. AIDS Care, 7(Suppl 1), S85–S88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shidlo, A. (1994). Internalized homophobia: Conceptual and empirical issues in measurement. In B. Green & G. Herek (Eds.), Lesbian and gay psychology: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 176–205). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens, B. C. (2006). Self-reported versus implicit predictors of high-risk sexual behavior among men who have sex with men. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66, 6295.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008). Internalized heterosexism: Measurement, psychosocial correlates, and research directions. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 525–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White, S. L. (2004). Predictors for readiness to engage in low-risk HIV behaviors in men who have sex with men. Dissertation Abstracts International, 65, 426.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, I. R. (2000). Internalized homophobia and health issues affecting lesbians and gay men. Health Education Research, 15, 97–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, E. R., Dye, J. D., Jiles, M. E., & Marcello, M. K. (1999). Empowering gay, lesbian and bisexual youth: Findings from the Indiana youth access project (Final evaluation report). Unpublished manuscript, Indiana University.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology (MC 285), University of Illinois at Chicago, 1007 W. Harrison Street, Chicago, IL, 60607, USA

    Michael E. Newcomb

  2. Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

    Brian Mustanski

Authors
  1. Michael E. Newcomb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Brian Mustanski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael E. Newcomb.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Newcomb, M.E., Mustanski, B. Moderators of the Relationship Between Internalized Homophobia and Risky Sexual Behavior in Men Who Have Sex with Men: A Meta-Analysis. Arch Sex Behav 40, 189–199 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9573-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9573-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation