Abstract
The relationship between the number of larvae inoculated and filarial infection outcome is an important fundamental and epidemiological issue. Our study was carried out with BALB/c mice infected with the filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis. For the first time, an immunological analysis of infection with various doses was studied in parallel with parasitological data. Mice were inoculated with 200, 60 or 25 infective larvae (third stage larvae, L3), and monitored over 80 days. At 60 h post-inoculation the immune response was stronger in the 200 L3 group than the 25 L3 group. Cells from lymph nodes draining the site of inoculation proliferated intensely and produced large amounts of IL-5 and IL-4. In the pleural cavity, leukocyte populations accumulated earlier and in larger quantities. IgG1, IL-4 and IL-10 serum concentrations were transiently higher. During the first 10 days the worm recovery rates were identical in all groups, but decreased thereafter in the 200 L3 group. In this group, the development of the worms was altered, with reduced lengths, diminished intra-uterine production of microfilariae and abnormalities of male copulatory organs. Whereas mice inoculated with 25 L3 became microfilaraemic, only one third reached patency in the 200 L3 group. However, detrimental effects of high numbers of worms are not seen in studies using different inoculation protocols. This suggests that the very early events determine subsequent immune response and infection outcome rather than competitive interactions between the worms.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Akue JP, Egwang TG, Devaney E (1994) High levels of parasite-specific IgG4 in the absence of microfilaremia in Loa loa infection. Trop Med Parasitol 45:246–248
Al-Qaoud KM, Taubert A, Zahner H, Fleischer B, Hoerauf A (1997) Infection of BALB/c mice with the filarial nematode Litomosoides sigmodontis: role of CD4+ T cells in controlling larval development. Infect Immun 65:2457–2461
Al-Qaoud KM, Fleischer B, Hoerauf A (1998) The Xid defect imparts susceptibility to experimental murine filariosis—association with a lack of antibody and IL-10 production by B cells in response to phosphorylcholine. Int Immunol 10:17–25
Al-Qaoud KM, Pearlman E, Hartung T, Klukowski J, Fleischer B, Hoerauf A (2000) A new mechanism for IL-5-dependent helminth control: neutrophil accumulation and neutrophil-mediated worm encapsulation in murine filariasis are abolished in the absence of IL-5. Int Immunol 12:899–908
Allen JE, Daub J, Guiliano D, McDonnell A, Lizotte-Waniewski M, Taylor DW, Blaxter M (2000) Analysis of genes expressed at the infective larval stage validates utility of Litomosoides sigmodontis as a murine model for filarial vaccine development. Infect Immun 68:5454–5458
Babayan S, Ungeheuer MN, Martin C, Attout T, Belnoue E, Snounou G, Renia L, Korenaga M, Bain O (2003) Resistance and susceptibility to filarial infection with Litomosoides sigmodontis are associated with early differences in parasite development and in localized immune reactions. Infect Immun 71:6820–6829
Baize S, Wahl G, Soboslay PT, Egwang TG, Georges AJ (1997) T helper responsiveness in human Loa loa infection; defective specific proliferation and cytokine production by CD4+ T cells from microfilaraemic subjects compared with amicrofilaraemics. Clin Exp Immunol 108:272–278
Basanez MG, Collins RC, Porter CH, Little MP, Brandling-Bennett D (2002) Transmission intensity and the patterns of Onchocerca volvulus infection in human communities. Am J Trop Med Hyg 67:669–679
Breton B, Diagne M, Wanji S, Bougnoux ME, Chandre F, Marechal P, Petit G, Vuong PN, Bain O (1997) Ivermectin and moxidectin in two filarial systems: resistance of Monanema martini; inhibition of Litomosoides sigmodontis insemination. Parassitologia 39:19–28
Connal A, Connal SLM (1922) The development of Loa loa (Guyot) in Chrysops silacea (Austen) and Chrysops dimidiata (Van der Wulp). Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 46:64–89
Cook RL, Roberts LS (1991) In vivo effects of putative crowding factors on development of Hymenolepis diminuta. J Parasitol 77:21–25
Dhar DN, Singha P (1971) Studies on quantitative infections of Litomosoides carinii (Travassos, 1919) in white rats. Z Tropenmed Parasitol 22:312–325
Diagne M, Petit G, Liot P, Cabaret J, Bain O (1990) The filaria Litomosoides galizai in mites; microfilarial distribution in the host and regulation of the transmission. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 65:193–199
Fain A (1981) Epidemiology and pathology of loaiasis. Ann Soc Belg Med Trop 61:277–285
Gillespie RD, Mbow ML, Titus RG (2000) The immunomodulatory factors of bloodfeeding arthropod saliva. Parasite Immunol 22:319–331
Gordon RM, Crewe W (1953) The deposition of the infective stage of Loa loa by Chrysops silacea, and the early stages of its migration to the deeper tissues of the mammalian host. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 47:74–85
Gray CA, Lawrence RA (2002) A role for antibody and Fc receptor in the clearance of Brugia malayi microfilariae. Eur J Immunol 32:1114–1120
Haque A, Lefebvre MN, Ogilvie BM, Capron A (1978) Dipetalonema viteae in hamsters: effect of antiserum or immunization with parasite extracts on production of microfilariae. Parasitology 76:61–75
Hawking F (1954) The reproductive system of Litomosoides carinii, a filarial parasite of cotton rat. III. The number of microfilariae produced. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 48:382–385
Hoffmann WH, Pfaff AW, Schulz-Key H, Soboslay PT (2001) Determinants for resistance and susceptibility to microfilaraemia in Litomosoides sigmodontis filariasis. Parasitology 122:641–649
Lal RB, Paranjape RS, Briles DE, Nutman TB, Ottesen EA (1987) Circulating parasite antigen(s) in lymphatic filariasis: use of monoclonal antibodies to phosphocholine for immunodiagnosis. J Immunol 138:3454–3460
Lavoipierre MM (1958) Studies on the host-parasite relationships of filarial nematodes and their arthropod hosts. I. The sites of development and the migration of Loa loa in Chrysops silacea, the escape of the infective forms from the head of the fly, and the effect of the worm on its insect host. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 52:103–121
Lawrence RA (1996) Lymphatic filariasis: what mice can tell us. Parasitol Today 12:267–271
Le Goff L, Maréchal P, Petit G, Taylor DW, Hoffmann W, Bain O (1997) Early reduction of the challenge recovery rate following immunization with irradiated infective larvae in a filaria mouse system. Trop Med Int Health 2:1170–1174
Le Goff L, Martin C, Oswald IP, Vuong PN, Petit G, Ungeheuer MN, Bain O (2000) Parasitology and immunology of mice vaccinated with irradiated Litomosoides sigmodontis larvae. Parasitology 120:271–280
Le Goff L, Loke P, Ali HF, Taylor DW, Allen JE (2000) Interleukin-5 is essential for vaccine-mediated immunity but not innate resistance to a filarial parasite. Infect Immun 68:2513–2517
Le Goff L, Lamb T, Graham A, Harcus Y, Allen J (2002) IL-4 is required to prevent filarial nematode development in resistant but not susceptible strains of mice. Int J Parasitol 32:1277
Maréchal P (1995) Deux filaires du genre Litomosoides chez la souris blanche; régulation du développement. Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris, number 1995MNHN0018, p 89
Maréchal P, Le Goff L, Petit G, Diagne M, Taylor DW, Bain O (1996) The fate of the filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis in susceptible and naturally resistant mice. Parasite 3:25–31
Maréchal P, Le Goff L, Hoffman W, Rapp J, Oswald IP, Ombrouck C, Taylor DW, Bain O, Petit G (1997) Immune response to the filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis in susceptible and resistant mice. Parasite Immunol 19:273–279
Martin C, Al-Qaoud KM, Ungeheuer MN, Paehle K, Vuong PN, Bain O, Fleischer B, Hoerauf A (2000) IL-5 is essential for vaccine-induced protection and for resolution of primary infection in murine filariasis. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 189:67–74
Martin C, Le Goff L, Ungeheuer MN, Vuong PN, Bain O (2000) Drastic reduction of a filarial infection in eosinophilic interleukin-5 transgenic mice. Infect Immun 68:3651–3656
Martin C, Saeftel M, Vuong PN, Babayan S, Fischer K, Bain O, Hoerauf A (2001) B-cell deficiency suppresses vaccine-induced protection against murine filariasis but does not increase the recovery rate for primary infection. Infect Immun 69:7067–7073
Mbow ML, Bleyenberg JA, Hall LR, Titus RG (1998) Phlebotomus papatasi sand fly salivary gland lysate down-regulates a Th1, but up-regulates a Th2, response in mice infected with Leishmania major. J Immunol 161:5571–5577
Orihel TC, Eberhard ML (1985) Loa loa: development and course of patency in experimentally-infected primates. Trop Med Parasitol 36:215–224
Paterson S, Viney ME (2002) Host immune responses are necessary for density dependence in nematode infections. Parasitology 125:283–292
Petit G, Diagne M, Marechal P, Owen D, Taylor D, Bain O (1992) Maturation of the filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis in BALB/c mice; comparative susceptibility of nine other inbred strains. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 67:144–150
Pfarr KM, Fischer K, Hoerauf A (2003) Involvement of Toll-like receptor 4 in the embryogenesis of the rodent filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 192:53–56
Saeftel M, Volkmann L, Korten S, Brattig N, Al-Qaoud K, Fleischer B, Hoerauf A (2001) Lack of interferon-gamma confers impaired neutrophil granulocyte function and imparts prolonged survival of adult filarial worms in murine filariasis. Microbes Infect 3:203–213
Saeftel M, Arndt M, Specht S, Volkmann L, Hoerauf A (2003) Synergism of gamma interferon and interleukin-5 in the control of murine filariasis. Infect Immun 71:6978–6985
Schoeler GB, Wikel SK (2001) Modulation of host immunity by haematophagous arthropods. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 95:755–771
Schulz-Key H (1987) Ivermectin in the treatment of onchocerciasis. In: ISI Atlas of Science: Pharmacology. ISI-Press, Philadelphia, pp 246–249
Simonsen PE, Meyrowitsch DW, Jaoko WG, Malecela MN, Mukoko D, Pedersen EM, Ouma JH, Rwegoshora RT, Masese N, Magnussen P, Estambale BB, Michael E (2002) Bancroftian filariasis infection, disease, and specific antibody response patterns in a high and a low endemicity community in East Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg 66:550–559
Söffner J, Wenk P (1985) Wirkung von Ivermectin auf die Verteilung der Mikrofilarien in den Organen und auf die Embryogenese bei der Baumwollrattenfilariae Litomosoides carinii (Nematoda: Filarioidea). Mitt Österr Tropenmed Parasit 7:229–234
Taubert A, Zahner H (2001) Cellular immune responses of filaria (Litomosoides sigmodontis) infected BALB/c mice detected on the level of cytokine transcription. Parasite Immunol 23:453–462
Volkmann L, Saeftel M, Bain O, Fischer K, Fleischer B, Hoerauf A (2001) Interleukin-4 is essential for the control of microfilariae in murine infection with the filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis. Infect Immun 69:2950–2956
Volkmann L, Bain O, Saeftel M, Specht S, Fischer K, Brombacher F, Matthaei KI, Hoerauf A (2003) Murine filariasis: interleukin 4 and interleukin 5 lead to containment of different worm developmental stages. Med Microbiol Immunol (Berl) 192:23–31
Wahl G, Georges AJ (1995) Current knowledge on the epidemiology, diagnosis, immunology, and treatment of loiasis. Trop Med Parasitol 46:287–291
Wanji S, Cabaret J, Gantier JC, Bonnand N, Bain O (1990) The fate of the filaria Monanema martini in two rodent hosts: recovery rate, migration, and localization. Ann Parasitol Hum Comp 65:80–88
Wanji S, Gantier JC, Petit G, Rapp J, Bain O (1994) Monanema martini in its murid hosts: microfiladermia related to infective larvae and adult filariae. Trop Med Parasitol 45:107-111
Weiss N (1978) Studies on Dipetalonema viteae (Filarioidea). I. Microfilaraemia in hamsters in relation to worm burden and humoral immune response. Acta Trop 35:137–150
Wenk P, Wegerhof PH (1982) Studies on acquired resistance of the cotton rat against microfilariae of Litomosoides carinii. 2. Injection of microfilariae during prepatency. Z Parasitenkd 68:321–329
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Judith E. Allen for her insightful comments on the manuscript, Jean-Christophe Deschemins at the Institut Cochin for his help and patience with the FACS machine, and Andrea Graham for her help with the regression analysis choice. A.H. received financial support from the German Research Foundation (grant Ho2009/1–3). A.H. and O.B. received financial support from the European Commission (grant ICA4–1999–10002).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Babayan, S., Attout, T., Specht, S. et al. Increased early local immune responses and altered worm development in high-dose infections of mice susceptible to the filaria Litomosoides sigmodontis. Med Microbiol Immunol 194, 151–162 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-004-0226-1
Received:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00430-004-0226-1