Keywords

1 Introduction

Recent research (Kabisch et al. 2016) has shown that there is a need to forge new networks and develop trans-disciplinary and inclusive partnerships and governance approaches in order to foster the uptake of nature-based solutions (NBS) in response to climate-related challenges. Producing stronger evidence on NBS for climate change adaptation and mitigation, and raising awareness of their benefits to society, are also key priorities for policy and practice.

Partnerships are collaborative arrangements which are important for implementing sustainability agendas due to two distinct and defining characteristics: (a) They can create and catalyse synergies between different parts of society by pooling together resources and skills, knowledge, institutional and governance capacities and (b) they are flexible and versatile in the roles they adopt, as partners match and complement their competencies and capacities to undertake a task or aim to achieve a common target (Frantzeskaki et al. 2014).

For IUCN, partnerships are a key driving force for successful conservation action. The socio-economic and environmental challenges confronting society today are complex and far from clear-cut. Bringing together diverse stakeholders such as governments, NGOs, scientists, businesses, local communities and indigenous peoples groups, can help to address these challenges in a comprehensive and inclusive way.

The complexity of urban environments underlines the importance of multi-disciplinary and multi-scale partnerships in cities. Cities represent a new class of ecosystems shaped by the dynamic interactions between ecological and social systems (CBD 2012). Urban citizens depend on ecosystems both within and beyond cities for a wide variety of goods and services (e.g. food, water, energy, climate regulation), and while cities are increasingly recognised for their role in conservation (CBD 2012), urbanisation also presents a major environmental challenge, for example by driving habitat conversion (McDonald et al. 2013).

Nature offers great untapped potential for improving the quality of life of urban citizens and finding solutions to challenges such as rising temperatures (the urban heat island effect) or flooding (CBD 2012). The challenge lies in developing and adopting urban planning and management approaches that ensure the delivery of regulating, provisioning, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services, while also promoting the sustainable use of resources.

Ideally, stakeholders from different policy areas and sectors should come together to develop holistic approaches to managing natural capital – the world’s stocks of natural assets which includes geology, soil, air, water and all living things. In reality however, collaboration between sectors and stakeholders is often hindered by a lack of exchange and cooperation, presenting a barrier to effective policymaking (Science for Environment Policy 2016) and the implementation of successful conservation initiatives.

Multidisciplinary and cross-cutting concepts such as NBS have the potential to facilitate cooperation between sectors and contribute to a more holistic approach to tackling socio-economic and environmental challenges. From IUCNs perspective, NBS are interventions which use nature, and the ecosystem services they provide, to address societal challenges such as climate change. Well-functioning ecosystems that deliver services needed by society are at the core of these types of solutions, which include, for instance, the creation or restoration of large ecosystems; investing in natural infrastructure and watershed management for water, food and energy security and climate change adaptation; ecosystem-based mitigation oriented solutions, such as the conservation and sustainable management of forests; and using ecologically engineered solutions, such as intertidal habitats or oyster reefs to protect shorelines and reduce sea-level rise impact and coastal inundation.

The aim of this chapter is to profile a broad range of partnerships led by the private sector, local communities and local/regional governments, which have restored, conserved and managed ecosystems to the benefit of people and the environment. The following sections include reflections on key outcomes and lessons that can be learned from each of these examples, which can provide the basis for further research into the implementation of NBS. The examples contained in this chapter were sourced through IUCNs global knowledge network and connections, supplemented by existing literature, and were chosen based on their suitability for highlighting success factors of, and challenges to partnerships for NBS. The examples were also selected to reflect diversity in terms of the partners involved and their geographical location.

2 The Private Sector – A Valuable Partner for Implementing NBS

The private sector (i.e. for-profit businesses) is a key partner to engage with in the process of meeting global biodiversity conservation targets. While the private sector can have negative impacts on biodiversity, it also has the potential to offer innovative solutions to urban challenges. Businesses can provide insights and perspectives which are complementary to those from governments and civil society. In particular, their knowledge of markets, management experience, and ability to harness advanced research and development to deliver solutions, can be valuable assets in the context of implementing NBS (IUCN 2012a).

Many businesses are increasingly realising that their future depends (directly or indirectly) on natural resources and that solely relying on man-made infrastructure is not enough (Ozment et al. 2015). Man-made storm surge barriers, for example, can help protect harbours, but can also seriously increase surge levels in surrounding areas. River ecosystems throughout Europe have been severely impacted by engineering projects for flood protection, navigation, water supply and hydroelectricity; it is estimated that less than 20% of Europe’s rivers and floodplains are in their natural state (RESTORE 2016). A combination of measures is needed to tackle flood and climate change related challenges effectively. This must include land-use management and nature-based measures which embrace natural systems as a means of enhancing our well-being and reducing risk (Munich RE 2015). Growing oyster reefs, for example, can help to reduce coastal erosion and protect businesses from storm surges, while also filtering contaminated seawater and supporting local fisheries (RESTORE 2016).

The importance and value of engaging with the private sector is aptly demonstrated in relation to climate change. According to a survey conducted by the Economist Intelligence Unit in 2014, 90% of business leaders believe that they have a role in building resilience and preparing cities for the impact of climate change (Kongrukgreatiyos 2014). This has already translated into action – in 2014, the private sector was the largest source of climate finance, devoting $243 billion to climate-related investments (Buchner et al. 2015). Partnerships between businesses, cities, civil society organisations, scientists and other urban stakeholders are crucial to showcasing the value of natural capital as the foundation for economic prosperity and human well-being, and help to bring about changes in business practices and leverage contributions from the private sector.

During the Conference of the Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP of UNFCCC) in Paris in 2015, the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) launched Natural Infrastructure for Business – an online platform to increase awareness of business opportunities for investing in ecosystems, or natural infrastructure, and scale up action. The ultimate objective of the initiative is that by 2020 companies systematically assess natural infrastructure options when investing in new sites or projects, thereby contributing to the protection, restoration and creation of new ecosystems. The online platform contains case studies from different industries leveraging various ecosystem services and decision-making tools, including a cost-benefit analysis tool. Some of these case studies are highlighted below.

2.1 Examples of Private Sector Led Partnerships for NBS

2.1.1 Volkswagen Restores Nature to Secure Reliable Water Supply

One example from the Natural Infrastructure for Business database is the Volkswagen initiative in the Puebla-Tlaxcala Valley in Mexico (WBCSD 2010). This project was initiated after years of deforestation from illegal logging and livestock farming, had led to increased water runoff and a reduction in capture and storage in the groundwater table. Realising that a reliable water supply was critical to ensuring the future of the company’s production efforts, Volkswagen de Mexico, in partnership with the Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas and the Secretary of the Environment for Mexico, invested in a project to plant trees, dig pits, and earthen banks to enable more than 1,300,000 cubic meters of additional water per year to be fed into the ground reserves in the source region, which is significantly more groundwater than Volkswagen in México itself consumes every year (WBCSD 2010). In the long term, these measures will help to ensure the provision of fresh water for the growing city of Puebla, while securing a reliable water supply for the stability of the company’s production plant in the region (WBCSD 2010). The additional biomass will also help sequester carbon dioxide and improve living conditions for the native fauna (WBCSD 2010), demonstrating the multiple benefits restoration efforts can bring to both people and the natural environment.

2.1.2 Rehabilitation of Quarries Provides Multiple Benefits for Nature, People and Business

Another example showcased in the WBCSD Natural Infrastructure for Business platform (Rushworth and Warau 2015) is a project in Bellegarde in the South of France, initiated by LafargeHolcim, a global leader in the building materials industry. This project focuses on stormwater management and flood prevention through targeted quarry rehabilitation and management programmes that provide stormwater catchments and create wetland habitats (Rushworth and Warau 2015). The sand and gravel quarry of Bellegarde has been in operation since 1970 and LafargeHolcim has worked with the local municipality to develop flood prevention infrastructure and create wetlands. The extracted quarry areas have been converted into stormwater reservoirs with a capacity of 2.5 million cubic meters, reducing the risk of flooding for local communities. Rehabilitation measures included the creation of shoreline areas and gently sloped riverbanks with varied contours, which have created diverse natural habitats such as ponds, resting places, and small islands that are favourable to many species. Research has shown that wetlands created from quarries in France have become a habitat for 132 species of birds (more than 48 percent of the French avifauna), 17% of the flora (1001 vascular plant species), and 63% of dragonflies found in France. Quarries have also become important refuge areas for many protected species. In addition to improving biodiversity in the area, the measures have also resulted in water quality and recreational benefits. Provided that there is access to sufficient land area to accommodate quarrying activities, the approach adopted by LafargeHolcim could be replicated in other areas and result in similar benefits.

2.2 Reflections and Lessons Learned

These examples demonstrate the potential of NBS to address multiple needs; specific interventions in, for example, reed beds, wetlands and forests can provide significant benefits to species’ populations, while also improving water quality and quantity. Sharing these types of best practices via an online platform, such as the WBCSD Natural Infrastructure for Business platform, can help to promote investments in natural infrastructure, and provide the basis for developing similar initiatives, adapted to local contexts.

Based on IUCNs experience, a key criterion for successful partnerships with the business sector is a shared understanding of landscape, land use, ecosystem relationships, benefits of investment in natural capital, key policies, development strategies and legal frameworks, and rights and responsibilities over resources. Acting in partnership also means being clear on the values of different stakeholders, the needs of the natural environment and local communities. Business actors may for example want to know the quantified impacts of water shortage on their business operations, whereas conservation actors may want to assess the actual impacts of water pollution on biodiversity. These aspects should be kept in mind when developing partnerships with the private sector.

3 Citizen Participation and Leadership

From IUCN’s perspective, recognising and respecting the rights of people who live close to and rely on nature is a central component of effective and inclusive conservation action.

Though citizen participation in environmental decision-making can bring its own sets of challenges (Irvin and Stansbury 2004), it can also support sustainable development (Abbott 2013) and is often promoted by governments based on the assumption that citizen participation can help make governance more democratic and effective (Irvin et al. 2004). There are numerous examples from around the world where people have come together to restore the landscape’s ecological functions and enhance well-being within and around cities, for example by growing organic food, building nature-friendly spaces or restoring rivers and creeks (Herzog 2013; URBES 2014a). Such examples illustrate the potential of citizens to bring about meaningful social and environmental change.

While policymakers and urban planners recognise the value of engaging with local communities, engaging citizens in urban planning and management decisions is not always easy. Municipality-promoted participation processes require political support and backing, as well as mechanisms and policies that promote inclusive governance practices (Greensurge 2015). Funding is also needed to ensure high participation levels and sound participatory engagement processes.

The section below highlights instances of citizen leadership which have helped to integrate local concerns into environmental management plans and foster the delivery of a range of ecosystem services and benefits.

3.1 Examples of Partnerships Building on Citizen Participation

3.1.1 The Miyun Watershed (Beijing) – Illustrating the Value of Engaging Local Stakeholders

The Miyun watershed is generally understood to comprise the six sub-catchments of the Chao He and Bai He Rivers, which together feed the Miyun reservoir. Located north of Beijing, the catchment covers an area of 15,788 km2. In total, around one million people live in the watershed area and the reservoir supplies between 60–80% of urban drinking water needs; an estimated 17 million people rely on it for their drinking water. This makes the watershed one of the most important water protection areas in the world (Li and Emerton 2012).

In the past 30–40 years, several attempts had been made to reforest the Miyun landscape in response to worsening water crises (Li and Emerton 2012). Conifers (Pinophyta) and other species were planted to compensate for the disappearance of the original broadleaf forest, and strict controls on logging, land and forest use were implemented (Li and Emerton 2012). Due to a lack of active management however, the newly planted trees did not achieve a healthy ecological status – around three-quarters of the trees were categorised as ‘sub-healthy’ or ‘unhealthy’. The strict controls also economically disadvantaged the local communities whose livelihoods had previously been associated with forest products (Li and Emerton 2012).

Against this backdrop, IUCN initiated a project in the Miyun watershed in 2007, which introduced a new set of forest management tools and brought about a shift from a strictly protective and very conservative regime, to one based on sustainable use and active management by local communities. The policy advocacy activities undertaken as part of the project focused on showcasing the multiple benefits of a multi-functional forest landscape. This reassured the Chinese government of the local community’s capacity to responsibly manage the area’s forests, and helped to bring about a formal agreement to recognise different forest management and use regimes, harmonising the technical information held by government foresters with local knowledge and interests (Li and Emerton 2012; IUCN 2012b).

By bringing together many diverse stakeholders and sectors at different levels, the project effectively developed a more integrated form of landscape management and restored the Miyun landscape in a way that recognises the multiple needs and functions of the watershed. With this approach, the initiative brought about a regeneration of natural forest and improvements in forest structure, quality and function (Li and Emerton 2012).

3.1.2 The Harava Survery Tool – An Innovative Mechanism to Support Citizen Participation in Vitoria-Gasteiz

As outlined above, citizen engagement requires significant investment and planning. However, there are a range of innovative tools that can support the process. Harava, for example, is an interactive map-based survey tool for smart planning, which enables organisations to conduct structured surveys with spatial data to inform decision-making, by collecting insights, ideas, and feedback from citizens who have practical knowledge and understanding of their surroundings.

Following an agreement between the city of Vitoria-Gasteiz (Spain) and Tecnalia, and with support from partners (SYKE Finnish Environment Institute), Harava was used to develop an urban management plan for Vitoria Gasteiz in 2013 (Ayuntamiento de Vitoria-Gasteiz, nd). The platform provided citizens with the opportunity to actively participate in the urban planning process by allowing them to take part in a survey covering a range of topics related to favourite and most frequented public areas, and more general views related to urban development and social inclusiveness.

Three hundred citizens participated in the two-month consultation process, providing information about 2497 spatial elements within the city (Herranz-Pasual et al. 2014). The consultation captured information such as how often and for what purpose citizens visit the city centre and rural areas. The tool also allowed citizens to convey their views on areas for improvement e.g. the need more trade and economic activities, particularly small businesses, to help make the city a more liveable place, as well as the need for better bike and pedestrian connections and public transport (Herranz-Pasual et al. 2014).

By engaging citizens in these types of participatory processes, governments have the opportunity to obtain information they might otherwise not have access to and on this basis, adapt spatial planning and management approaches to make cities more liveable and appealing to the people who live in them. Given that liveability is closely linked to the existence of green spaces (Beatley 2012) this type of collaboration has the potential to provide a sound basis for developing innovative solutions to urban challenges and implementing NBS, which benefit both local people and the environment.

3.1.3 Berlin – The Power of Citizen Engagement and Leadership

The Vitoria-Gasteiz example illustrates how governments can employ innovative mechanisms to engage citizens and ensure that city planning incorporates the needs and wishes of its people. But there are also instances where social activism has been the driver of conservation action.

In Berlin, Germany, the decision to protect the disused Tempelhof airfield from housing development and convert it into one of the city’s most popular parks came as a result of a citizen-initiated referendum in May 2014 and a series of open community meetings, citizen working groups and consultations through an online platform. Citizen engagement in determining the future of the Tempelhof site started through public meetings, forums and lectures before the airport was closed in 2008. A web dialogue drew 68,000 users and 2500 idea contributors, and surveys were distributed to 6000 local households and to 1000 households in Berlin (Burgess 2014). Moderated focus groups were established to engage migrants groups, often marginalised in consultation processes. Following the closure of the airport, consultations and large-scale public events continued to take place. In 2009, 3500 people attended a “Call for Ideas”, and more than 2000 people visited an Open House event showcasing concept ideas for developing the site (Burgess 2014). Finally, it was the “100% Tempelhofer Feld” civil society group, who pushed for the referendum that determined the future of the site (Burgess 2014).

Today, Tempelhof Park is one of the most popular parks in Berlin, hosting a variety of recreation facilities. Sealed areas such as former runways are used for cycling and running, while some lawn areas have become nature conservation zones and other zones have been designated for urban gardening, educational activities or recreational activities such as barbecuing (Burgess 2014). The 100% Tempelhofer Feld group continues to actively work to protect the natural areas and cultural heritage of the park and ensure continued open public access for the future.

The transformation of the Tempelhof Park in Berlin from a disused airfield to a lively urban park illustrates how strong social engagement can result in the creation or maintenance of green areas which support biodiversity conservation, contributing to urban resilience and providing cultural and recreational ecosystem services (URBES 2014b).

3.2 Reflections and Lessons Learned

The above examples illustrate how involving local users of natural resources in planning and decision-making can help to support the implementation of more effective environmental management regimes which benefit both people and nature.

Citizen engagement in urban planning and ecosystem management can be time consuming and costly, and requires the development of trust between stakeholder groups and flexibility to accommodate changes in planning and processes (Li and Emerton 2012). When done successfully however, citizen participation and engagement can support urban planning by helping to uncover the needs and wishes of local people, thereby providing the basis for increasing the livability of urban spaces, which has the potential to benefit both people and nature. Citizen engagement can also provide an entry-point to identifying potential NBS which could address the key societal challenges identified by urban citizens in a holistic manner that is respectful of community needs and aspirations.

4 Integrated Urban and Regional Planning for NBS

Governments are increasingly searching for cost-effective and holistic ways of addressing environmental challenges, which not only reliably deliver their immediate intended impacts, such as space for recreation and reduced air pollution, but also bring additional benefits to society, such as improved health and well-being.

Policymakers in cities and at the sub-national level can lead the way in making the transition towards increasing resilience and integrating ecological concerns within urban planning and decision-making. Instead of an infrastructure agenda in which nature is a problem, a cost, and a political risk, nature can become part of the solution.

Cities around Europe have already shown a commitment to integrating nature into their urban planning and management, and thereby demonstrated awareness of the importance of protecting natural capital. The Regional Climate Plan for Paris, for example, highlights the importance of protecting ecosystems in order to adapt to and mitigate climate change (Conseil Regional D’Île-De-France 2011). The city also recognises that forest management practices which optimise their capacity for adaptation and resilience can lead to multiple benefits for biodiversity, people and the city (Natureparif 2015).

Additional examples of cities that have integrated nature within their planning and strategies are outlined below.

4.1 Examples for the Integration of Nature in Urban Planning

4.1.1 Gibsons’ Eco-Asset Strategy for Climate Adaptation and Resilience

Mapping and assessing ecosystems and their services is essential to ensure that their values are taken into account in decision-making and integrated across policies and sectors. The town of Gibsons, north of Vancouver in Canada, is pioneering a strategy that could contribute to the efforts of municipalities in Canada and elsewhere to improve climate resilience. Gibsons’ “Eco-Asset strategy” focuses on identifying existing natural assets such as green space, forests, topsoil, aquifers and creeks that provide municipal services such as storm water management; measuring the value of the municipal services provided by these assets; and making this information operational by integrating it into municipal asset management. This is proving to be an effective financial and municipal management approach that complements strategies to maintain, replace and build both traditional engineered assets such as roads and storm sewers and engineered ‘green assets’ such as rain gardens, parks and bio-swales. Integrating natural assets into decision-making can support municipal climate change adaptation and resilience building efforts in a cost-effective way. Gibsons’ aquifer, for example, which is part of the municipal asset management strategy, requires about $28,000 annually in monitoring costs. This is a cost-effective NBS to water security compared to the much higher operational costs of a filtration and treatment plant.

4.1.2 Philadelphia’s Natural Solution for Stormwater Management

Philadelphia is another city in North America which has integrated nature into city planning (Qin et al. 2015). Already in the 19th century, the city had acquired approximately 3600 hectares of natural areas to help filter and regulate its potable water, and the land remains protected as parkland (Gartner et al. 2014). Confronted by frequent sewer overflows during storms, Philadelphia recently conducted a cost-benefit analysis of green infrastructure options—such as tree planting, permeable pavement and green roofs—and conventional grey options, such as storage tunnels (UNEP 2014). The economic benefits associated with green infrastructure ranged from $1.94 billion to $4.45 billion, compared to just $0.06 billion to $0.14 billion from grey infrastructure (UNEP 2014). In 2011, the city adopted the “Green City, Clean Waters” plan to reduce stormwater pollution by greening public spaces and creating a living landscape that slows, filters and consumes rainfall. City officials expect to reduce stormwater and sewage pollution entering the waterways by 85% when the project is completed (Qin et al. 2015).

4.1.3 Nature Flood Management in the UK – “Slow the Flow”

In the UK, a natural flood management scheme played a prominent role in preventing floods in a small town in North Yorkshire, Pickering, in December 2015. An upstream flood storage reservoir was installed, 40,000 trees planted and heather moorland restored to soak up incoming water (Harrabin 2016). Based on the success of this “Slow the Flow” scheme, options for developing a 25-year plan which looks at the management of river catchment areas to improve flood resilience for the environment are now being explored (Harrabin 2016). A major study by Forest Research, an arm of the Forestry Commission in the UK, recently found that planting trees in hills and along watercourses could significantly reduce flooding, soil erosion and water pollution and highlighted the need to “increase incentives for woodland planting by making these better reflect the full range of water and other benefits” (Nisbet et al. 2011). Quantifying water benefits and evaluating how woodland can be best integrated with agriculture and urban activities for water and wider environmental benefits, while minimising any water trade-offs, is a critical step in order to garner support from local stakeholders such as landowners and farmers (Nisbet et al. 2011).

4.2 Reflections and Lessons Learned

Integrating nature within planning and policies can have clear benefits for citizens, not only by improving water quality or climate resilience, but also by saving money. Green spaces in cities can also add value to commercial and private property and can contribute to a city’s tax revenues as well as attract more visitors and private sector investment (CBD 2012).

Urban planning often fails to fully recognise the connection between cities and their natural surroundings. Natural infrastructure must play a more influential role in the planning and design of cities and urban regions, but this is often hampered by budgetary constraints. The examples above demonstrate that making the protection of natural assets and enhancement of ecosystem functions a prominent part of decision-making can offer cost-effective solutions to a range of challenges.

A major challenge to upscaling the implementation of NBS is the lack of a solid evidence base showcasing the benefits of NBS over traditional approaches to climate change adaptation. As a result, policy-makers tend to favour the implementation of traditional engineering solutions for climate adaptation, instead of investing in NBS (Rizvi et al. 2015). More concrete data on the cost-effectiveness of nature-based approaches and field evidence is required to showcase the solutions ecosystems have to offer (Rizvi et al. 2015) and the benefits they can bring.

5 Conclusion

This chapter has demonstrated that multi-stakeholder partnerships for NBS can lead to substantial social, economic and environmental benefits and can support adaptation to climate change (see Table 16.1 below).

Table 16.1 Summary of NBS partnerships and resulting benefits discussed in this chapter
Full size table

The chapter also highlighted a number of lessons that can inform future partnerships for NBS:

  • Multidisciplinary and inclusive partnerships can foster the uptake of NBS in response to climate-related challenges. They can create and catalyse synergies between different parts of society by pooling together resources skills and knowledge.

  • Involving citizens in urban decision making can help to make cities more liveable, identify opportunities for implementing NBS, and create trust, ownership and stewardship.

  • Innovative tools (e.g. Harava) can help to incorporate different stakeholder views within urban planning and policymaking and have the potential to support the development of NBS.

  • Creating trust and learning to understand each other’s language better can help to form the basis for joint action.

  • The development of replicable business models which quantify the values of nature at local and landscape level and present a reliable return on investment can help to gain private sector support and leverage public investment in NBS.

  • There is a need to develop a more solid evidence base on the multiple benefits, and particularly the cost-effectiveness of nature-based approaches to gain more wide-spread support for NBS at city level. Experts on measuring the qualitative and quantitative economic and social benefits and services provided by ecosystems, can help to create visibility for the value of a city’s natural assets and promote the uptake of NBS in urban planning and management.

Sharing these types of examples and lessons can serve as a strong foundation for promoting NBS and can help to inspire future partnerships for, and investments in NBS.