Abstract
3D bioprinting technology is expected to revolutionize the field of medicine and health care particularly within soft tissue repair and reconstruction. Surgical needs for soft tissue repair include nose, ear, meniscus, and cartilage in joints, as well as repair of damaged nerve tissue, and repair or replacement of damaged skin. 3D bioprinting technology includes a 3D bioprinter, cells, and bioink. Novel bioinks which will be suitable for soft tissue repair need to be developed before 3D bioprinting technology can get into the clinic. Hydrogels and cell-laden hydrogels are very attractive for soft tissue application because of the similarity of mechanical properties and cell environment. The process of design and development of novel bioinks is described in detail in this chapter which includes rheology, printability, cross-linking, long-term stability in medium, cell viability, and stimulation of cells during tissue growth. The commercialization process of bioinks is also described.
References
Adams AM, Arruda EM, Larkin LM (2012) Use of adipose-derived stem cells to fabricate scaffoldless tissue-engineered neural conduits in vitro. Neuroscience 201:349–356
Administration, U.S.F.a.D. (2012) Guidance for Industry – Pyrogen and Endotoxins Testing: Questions and Answers. U.S.D.o.H.H. Services, Editor. U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, p. 8
Ahrem H et al (2014) Laser-structured bacterial nanocellulose hydrogels support ingrowth and differentiation of chondrocytes and show potential as cartilage implants. Acta Biomater 10(3):1341–1353
Andrade FK et al (2013) Studies on the biocompatibility of bacterial cellulose. J Bioact Compat Polym 28(1):97–112
Baltich J et al (2010) Development of a scaffoldless three-dimensional engineered nerve using a nerve-fibroblast co-culture. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 46(5):438–444
Bekkers JE et al (2013) Single-stage cell-based cartilage regeneration using a combination of chondrons and mesenchymal stromal cells: comparison with microfracture. Am J Sports Med 41(9):2158–2166
Bhattacharya M et al (2012) Nanofibrillar cellulose hydrogel promotes three-dimensional liver cell culture. J Control Release 164(3):291–298
Billiet T et al (2012) A review of trends and limitations in hydrogel-rapid prototyping for tissue engineering. Biomaterials 33(26):6020–6041
Brohlin M et al (2009) Characterisation of human mesenchymal stem cells following differentiation into Schwann cell-like cells. Neurosci Res 64(1):41–49
Brown RM Jr, Willison JH, Richardson CL (1976) Cellulose biosynthesis in Acetobacter xylinum: visualization of the site of synthesis and direct measurement of the in vivo process. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 73(12):4565–4569
Campos DFD et al (2013) Three-dimensional printing of stem cell-laden hydrogels submerged in a hydrophobic high-density fluid. Biofabrication 5(1):015003
Catros S et al (2011) Effect of laser energy, substrate film thickness and bioink viscosity on viability of endothelial cells printed by Laser-Assisted Bioprinting. Appl Surf Sci 257(12):5142–5147
Chiu DT et al (1988) Comparative electrophysiologic evaluation of nerve grafts and autogenous vein grafts as nerve conduits: an experimental study. J Reconstr Microsurg 4(4):303–309 311–2
Colosi C et al (2016) Microfl uidic Bioprinting of Heterogeneous 3D Tissue Constructs Using Low-Viscosity Bioink. Adv Mater 28(4):677–684
Deinema M, Zevenhuizen LPTM (1971) Formation of cellulose fibrils by gram-negative bacteria and their role in bacterial flocculation. Arch Mikrobiol 78(1):42–57
Farrell MJ et al (2014) Functional properties of bone marrow-derived MSC-based engineered cartilage are unstable with very long-term in vitro culture. J Biomech 47(9):2173–2182
Fedorovich NE et al (2009) Evaluation of photocrosslinked Lutrol hydrogel for tissue printing applications. Biomacromolecules 10(7):1689–1696
Firmin F, Marchac A (2011) A novel algorithm for autologous ear reconstruction. Semin Plast Surg 25(4):257–264
Gao G et al (2015a) Inkjet-bioprinted acrylated peptides and PEG hydrogel with human mesenchymal stem cells promote robust bone and cartilage formation with minimal printhead clogging. Biotechnol J 10(10):1568–1577
Gao Q et al (2015b) Coaxial nozzle-assisted 3D bioprinting with built-in microchannels for nutrients delivery. Biomaterials 61:203–215
Ghosh S et al (2008) Direct-write assembly of microperiodic silk fibroin scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Adv Funct Mater 18:1883–1889
Gilleard O, Segaren N, Healy C (2013) Experience of ReCell in skin cancer reconstruction. Arch Plast Surg 40(5):627–629
Grimoldi N et al (2015) Stem cell salvage of injured peripheral nerve. Cell Transplant 24(2):213–222
Groll J et al (2016) Biofabrication: reappraising the definition of an evolving field. Biofabrication 8(1):013001
Gruber HE et al (2010) Human adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells: direction to a phenotype sharing similarities with the disc, gene expression profiling, and coculture with human annulus cells. Tissue Eng Part A 16(9):2843–2860
Guillotin B, Guillemot F (2011) Cell patterning technologies for organotypic tissue fabrication. Trends Biotechnol 29(4):183–190
Hadlock TA et al (2001) A new artificial nerve graft containing rolled Schwann cell monolayers. Microsurgery 21(3):96–101
Heine H, Rietschel ET, Ulmer AJ (2001) The biology of endotoxin. Mol Biotechnol 19(3):279–296
Helenius G et al (2006) In vivo biocompatibility of bacterial cellulose. J Biomed Mater Res A 76(2):431–438
Hendriks J, Riesle J, van Blitterswijk CA (2007) Co-culture in cartilage tissue engineering. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 1(3):170–178
Hoffman RM (2006) The pluripotency of hair follicle stem cells. Cell Cycle 5(3):232–233
Hold GL, Bryant CE (2011) The molecular basis of lipid a toll-like receptor 4 interactions. In: Bacterial lipopolysaccharides. Springer, Vienna, pp 371–387
Hu ZC et al (2015) Randomized clinical trial of autologous skin cell suspension combined with skin grafting for chronic wounds. Br J Surg 102(2):e117–e123
Kang HW et al (2016) A 3D bioprinting system to produce human-scale tissue constructs with structural integrity. Nat Biotechnol 34(3):312–319
Khalil S, Sun W (2009) Bioprinting Endothelial Cells With Alginate for 3D Tissue Constructs. J Biomech Eng 131(11):111002–111002
Koch L et al (2012) Skin tissue generation by laser cell printing. Biotechnol Bioeng 109(7):1855–1863
Ladak A et al (2011) Differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells to support peripheral nerve regeneration in a rat model. Exp Neurol 228(2):242–252
Lee W et al (2009) Multi-layered culture of human skin fibroblasts and keratinocytes through three-dimensional freeform fabrication. Biomaterials 30(8):1587–1595
Lee DH et al (2014) Recombinant growth factor mixtures induce cell cycle progression and the upregulation of type I collagen in human skin fibroblasts, resulting in the acceleration of wound healing processes. Int J Mol Med 33(5):1147–1152.
Lee V et al (2014) Design and fabrication of human skin by three-dimensional bioprinting. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 20(6):473–484
Lindahl A (2015) From gristle to chondrocyte transplantation: treatment of cartilage injuries. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 370(1680):20140369
Luquetti DV, Leoncini E, Mastroiacovo P (2011) Microtia-anotia: a global review of prevalence rates. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 91(9):813–822
Ma B et al (2013) Gene expression profiling of dedifferentiated human articular chondrocytes in monolayer culture. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 21(4):599–603
Malda J et al (2013) 25th anniversary article: Engineering hydrogels for biofabrication. Adv Mater 25(36):5011–5028
Markstedt K et al (2015) 3D bioprinting human chondrocytes with nanocellulose–alginate bioink for cartilage tissue engineering applications. Biomacromolecules 16(5):1489–1496
Marga F et al (2012) Toward engineering functional organ modules by additive manufacturing. Biofabrication 4(2):022001
Martínez Ávila H et al (2014) Biocompatibility evaluation of densified bacterial nanocellulose hydrogel as an implant material for auricular cartilage regeneration. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 98(17):7423–7435
Martínez Ávila H et al (2015) Novel bilayer bacterial nanocellulose scaffold supports neocartilage formation in vitro and in vivo. Biomaterials 44(0):122–133
Martinez H et al (2012) Mechanical stimulation of fibroblasts in micro-channeled bacterial cellulose scaffolds enhances production of oriented collagen fibers. J Biomed Mater Res A 100(4):948–957
Martínez Ávila H, Schwarz S, Rotter N, Gatenholm P (2016) 3D bioprinting of human chondrocyte-laden nanocellulose hydrogel for patient-specific auricular cartilage regeneration. Bioprinting.
Meek MF, Coert JH (2008) US Food and Drug Administration /Conformit Europe- approved absorbable nerve conduits for clinical repair of peripheral and cranial nerves. Ann Plast Surg 60(4):466–472
Meek MF, Varejao AS, Geuna S (2004) Use of skeletal muscle tissue in peripheral nerve repair: review of the literature. Tissue Eng 10(7–8):1027–1036
Mello LR et al (1997) Duraplasty with biosynthetic cellulose: an experimental study. J Neurosurg 86(1):143–150
Michael S et al (2013) Tissue engineered skin substitutes created by laser-assisted bioprinting form skin-like structures in the dorsal skin fold chamber in mice. PLoS One 8(3):e57741
Murphy SV, Atala A (2014) 3D bioprinting of tissues and organs. Nat Biotechnol 32(8):773–785
Paakko M et al (2007) Enzymatic hydrolysis combined with mechanical shearing and high-pressure homogenization for nanoscale cellulose fibrils and strong gels. Biomacromolecules 8(6):1934–1941
Pati F et al (2014) Printing three-dimensional tissue analogues with decellularized extracellular matrix bioink. Nat Commun 5:3935
Pertile RA et al (2011) Bacterial cellulose: long-term biocompatibility studies. J Biomater Sci Polym Ed 23(10):1339–1354
Pescosolido L et al (2011) Hyaluronic acid and dextran-based semi-IPN hydrogels as biomaterials for bioprinting. Biomacromolecules 12(5):1831–1838
Poole CA, Ayad S, Schofield JR (1988) Chondrons from articular cartilage: I. Immunolocalization of type VI collagen in the pericellular capsule of isolated canine tibial chondrons. J Cell Sci 90(Pt 4):635–643
Rosen CL, Steinberg GK, DeMonte F, Delashaw JB, Lewis SB, Shaffrey ME et al (2011) Results of the prospective, randomized, multicenter clinical trial evaluating a biosynthesized cellulose graft for repair of dural defects. Neurosurgery 69:1093–1103
Radtke C et al (2009) Transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells enhances peripheral nerve regeneration after microsurgical nerve repair. Brain Res 1254:10–17
Schiele NR, Chrisey DB, Corr DT (2011) Gelatin-based laser direct-write technique for the precise spatial patterning of cells. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 17(3):289–298
Schmidt CE, Leach JB (2003) Neural tissue engineering: strategies for repair and regeneration. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 5:293–347
Schuurman W et al (2013) Gelatin-methacrylamide hydrogels as potential biomaterials for fabrication of tissue-engineered cartilage constructs. Macromol Biosci 13(5):551–561
Scotti C et al (2013) Engineering of a functional bone organ through endochondral ossification. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110(10):3997–4002
Shin H, Olsen BD, Khademhosseini A (2012) The mechanical properties and cytotoxicity of cell-laden double-network hydrogels based on photocrosslinkable gelatin and gellan gum biomacromolecules. Biomaterials 33(11):3143–3152
Siemionow M, Brzezicki G (2009) Chapter 8: current techniques and concepts in peripheral nerve repair. Int Rev Neurobiol 87:141–172
Skardal A et al (2012) Bioprinted amniotic fluid-derived stem cells accelerate healing of large skin wounds. Stem Cells Transl Med 1(11):792–802
Steed M et al (2011) Advances in bioengineered conduits for peripheral nerve regeneration. Atlas Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am 19(1):119–130
Svensson A et al (2005) Bacterial cellulose as a potential scaffold for tissue engineering of cartilage. Biomaterials 26(4):419–431
Tang JB, Gu YQ, Song YS (1993) Repair of digital nerve defect with autogenous vein graft during flexor tendon surgery in zone 2. J Hand Surg Br 18(4):449–453
Tanzer RC (1959) Total reconstruction of the external ear. Plast Reconstr Surg Transplant Bull 23(1):1–15
Tsuchiya T et al (2005) Characterization of microglia induced from mouse embryonic stem cells and their migration into the brain parenchyma. J Neuroimmunol 160(1–2):210–218
Visser J et al (2013) Biofabrication of multi-material anatomically shaped tissue constructs. Biofabrication 5(3):035007
Weng L, Chen X, Chen W (2007) Rheological Characterization of in Situ Crosslinkable Hydrogels Formulated from Oxidized Dextran and N-Carboxyethyl Chitosan. Biomacromolecules 8(4):1109–1115
Williams, KL (2007) Fever and the host response. In: Williams KL, (ed) Endotoxins. CRC Press, Florida, USA. p. 47–66
Wolford LM, Stevao EL (2003) Considerations in nerve repair. Proc (Bayl Univ Med Cent) 16(2):152–156
Wu L et al (2011) Trophic effects of mesenchymal stem cells increase chondrocyte proliferation and matrix formation. Tissue Eng Part A 17(9–10):1425–1436
Zulkifli FH et al (2014) Nanostructured materials from hydroxyethyl cellulose for skin tissue engineering. Carbohydr Polym 114:238–245
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing AG
About this entry
Cite this entry
Gatenholm, P. et al. (2016). Development of Nanocellulose-Based Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting of Soft Tissue. In: Ovsianikov, A., Yoo, J., Mironov, V. (eds) 3D Printing and Biofabrication. Reference Series in Biomedical Engineering(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40498-1_14-1
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40498-1_14-1
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-40498-1
eBook Packages: Springer Reference Biomedicine and Life SciencesReference Module Biomedical and Life Sciences