Skip to main content

Desert landforms are characterized by an abundance of ‘bare’ rock and mineral surfaces. Mountains host widespread exposures of bedrock. Gravel desert pavements cap alluvial terraces and fans. Even sand dunes are themselves composed of rock fragments exposed to the atmosphere without substantive plant cover. This chapter focuses on an irony, that the supposed fundamental bare-rock nature of desert landforms stretches the truth.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 89.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 119.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Banfield, J. F., Barker, W. W., Welch, S. A., and Taunton, A., 1999, Biological impact on mineral dissolution: Application of the lichen model to understanding mineral weathering in the rhizosphere, Proceedings National Academy of Sciences 96: 3404–3411.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bard, J. C., 1979, The development of a patination dating technique for Great Basin petroglyphs utilizing neutron activation and X-ray fluorescence analyses. Ph.D. Dissertation, Dissertation thesis, 409 pp., University of California, Berkeley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bargar, K. E., 1978, Geology and thermal history of Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, U.S. Geologicay Survey Bulletin 1444: 1–55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, T., Chalmers, A., Díaz-Andreu, M., Longhurst, P., Ellis, G., Sharpe, K., and Trinks, I., 2005, 3D laser scanning for recording and monitoring rock art erosion, INORA 41: 25–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beazley, M. J., Rickman, R. D., Ingram, D. K., Boutton, T. W., and Russ, J., 2002, Natural abundances of carbon isotopes (14, 13C) in lichens and calcium oxalate pruina: Implications for archaeological and paleoenvironmental studies, Radiocarbon 44: 675–683.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell, J. W., Peterson, F. F., Dorn, R. I., Ramelli, A. R., and Ku, T. L., 1991, Late Quaternary surficial geology in Crater Flat, Yucca Mountain, southern Nevada, Geological Society America Abstracts with Program 23(2): 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, L., 1994, Carbonate deposition, Pyramid Lake Subbasin, Nevada: 1. Sequence of formation and elevational distribution of carbonate deposits (tufas), Palaeogeography, Palaeoecology, Palaeoclimatology 109: 55–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benson, L., Kashgarian, M., and Rubin, M., 1995, Carbonate deposition, Pyramid Lake subbasin, Nevada: 2. Lake levels and polar jet stream positions reconstructed from radiocarbon ages and elevations of carbonates (tufas) deposited in the Lahontan basin, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 117: 1–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Benzerara, K., Chapon, V., Moreira, D., Lopez-Garcia, P., Guyot, F., and Heulin, T., 2006, Microbial diversity on the Tatahouine meteorite, Meteoritics & Planetary Science 41: 1259–1265.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bertilsson, R., 2002, Rock art at Risk, http://www.international. icomos.org/risk/2002/rockart2002.htm (accessed 3/8/05).

  • Bjelland, T., Saebo, L., and Thorseth, I. H., 2002, The occurrence of biomineralization products in four lichen species growing on sandstone in western Norway, Lichenologist 34: 429–440.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bjelland, T., and Thorseth, I. H., 2002, Comparative studies of the lichen-rock interface of four lichens in Vingen, western Norway, Chemical Geology 192: 81–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bourman, R. P., and Milnes, A. R., 1985, Gibber plains, Australian Geographer 16: 229–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Broecker, W. S., and Liu, T., 2001, Rock varnish: recorder of desert wetness?, GSA Today 11 (8): 4–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Browne, B. A., and Driscoll, C. T., 1992, Soluble aluminum silicates: stoichiometry, stability, and implications for environmental geochemistry, Science 256: 1667–1669.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brugnara, M., Degasperi, E., Volpe, C. D., Maniglio, D., Penati, A., Siboni, S., Toniolo, L., Poli, T., Invernizzi, S., and Castelvetro, V., 2004, The application of the contact angle in monument protection: new materials and methods, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 241: 299–312.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bull, W. B., 1991, Geomorphic Responses to Climatic Change, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 326pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bull, W. B., 1995, Dating San Andreas fault earthquakes with lichenometry, Geology 24: 111–114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Butzer, K. W., Fock, G. J., Scott, L., and Stuckenrath, R., 1979, Dating and context of rock engravings in South Africa, Science 203: 1201–1214.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cariati, F., Rampazzi, L., Toniolo, L., and Pozzi, A., 2000, Calcium oxalate films on stone surfaces: Experimental assessment of the chemical formation, Studies in Conservation 45: 180–188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carter, C. L., Dethier, D. P., and Newton, R. L., 2003, Subglacial environment inferred from bedrock-coating siltskins, Mendenhall Glacier, Alaska, USA, Journal of Glaciology 49: 568–576.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casey, W. H., Westrich, H. R., Banfield, J. F., Ferruzzi, G., and Arnold, G. W., 1993, Leaching and reconstruction at the surfaces of dissolving chain-silicate minerals, Nature 366: 253–256.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cerveny, N. V., Kaldenberg, R., Reed, J., Whitley, D. S., Simon, J., and Dorn, R. I., 2006, A new strategy for analyzing the chronometry of constructed rock features in deserts, Geoarchaeology 21: 181–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chen, Y., and Polach, J., 1986, Validity of C-14 ages of carbonates in sediments, Radiocarbon 28 (2A): 464–472.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christensen, P. R., and Harrison, S. T., 1993, Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of natural surfaces: application to desert varnish coating on rocks, Journal of Geophysical Research 98 (B11): 19,819–19,834.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chukhrov, F. V., Zvyagin, B. B., Ermilova, L. P., and Gorshkov, A. I., 1973, New Data on Iron Oxides in the Weathering Zone, Division de Ciencias C.S.I.C., Madrid, 333–341p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cockburn, H. A. P., and Summerfield, M. A., 2004, Geomorphological applications of cosmogenic isotope analysis, Progress in Physical Geography 28: 1–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, J. F., and Buol, S. W., 1970, Effects of fluctuations in the Eh-pH environment on iron and/or manganese equilibria, Soil Science 110: 111–118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conca, J. L., 1985, Differential weathering effects and mechanisms, Dissertation thesis, 251pp., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conca, J. L., and Rossman, G. R., 1982, Case hardening of sandstone, Geology 10: 520–525.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooks, J., and Fourie, Y., 1990, The influence of two epilithic lichens on the weathering of quartzite and gabbro, South African Geographer 17 (1/2): 24–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coudé-Gaussen, G., Rognon, P., and Federoff, N., 1984, Piegeage de poussières éoliennes dans des fissures de granitoides due Sinai oriental, Compte Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences de Paris II: 369–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cremaschi, M., 1996, The desert varnish in the Messak Sattafet (Fezzan, Libryan Sahara), age, archaeological context and paleo-environmental implication, Geoarchaeology 11: 393–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crerar, D. A., Fischer, A. G., and Plaza, C. L., 1980, Metallogenium and biogenic deposition of manganese from Precambrian to recent time, in: Geology and Geochemistry of Manganese. Volume III. Manganese on the bottom of Recent Basins, I. M. Varentsov and G. Grasselly, ed., E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, pp. 285–303.

    Google Scholar 

  • Curtiss, B., Adams, J. B., and Ghiorso, M. S., 1985, Origin, development and chemistry of silica-alumina rock coatings from the semiarid regions of the island of Hawaii, Geochemica et Cosmochimica Acta 49: 49–56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dandurand, J., Gout, R., Hoefs, J., Menschel, G., Schott, J., and Usdowski, E., 1982, Kinetically controlled variations of major components and carbon isotopes in a calcite-precipitating stream, Chemical Geology 36: 299–315.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danin, A., 1983, Weathering of limestone in Jerusalem by cyanobacteria, Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 27: 413–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danin, A., 1985, Palaeoclimates in Israel: evidence form weathering patterns of stones in and near archaeological sites, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 259: 33–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danin, A., 1986, Patterns of biogenic weathering as indicators of palaeoclimates in Israel, Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 89B: 243–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danin, A., and Garty, J., 1983, Distribution of cyanobacteria and lichens on hillsides of the Negev highlands and their impact on biogenic weathering, Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 27: 423–444.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danin, A., Gerson, R., and Garty, J., 1983, Weathering Patterns on Hard Limestone and Dolomite by Endolithic Lichens and Cyanobacteria: Supporting Evidence for Eolian Contribution to Terra Rossa Soil, Soil Science 136: 213–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danin, A., Gerson, R., Marton, K., and Garty, J., 1982, Patterns of limestone and dolomite weathering by lichens and blue-green algae and their palaeoclimatic significance, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 37: 221–223.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeAngelis, F., Ceci, R., Quaresima, R., Reale, S., and DiTullio, A., 2003, Investigation by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry of secondary metabolites in lichens deposited on stone, Rapid Communications in Mass Spectrometry 17: 526–531.

    Google Scholar 

  • Del Monte, M., Sabbioni, C., and Zappa, G., 1987, The origin of calcium oxalates on historical buildings, monuments and natural outcrops, The Science of the Total Environment 67: 17–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz, T. A., Bailley, T. L., and Orndorff, R. L., 2002, SEM analysis of vertical and lateral variations in desert varnish chemistry from the Lahontan Mountains, Nevada, Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs May 7–9 Meeting: ///gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002RM/finalprogram/ abstract_33974.htm

    Google Scholar 

  • DiGregorio, B. E., 2002, Rock varnish as a habitat for extant life on Mars, in: Instruments, Methods, and Missions for Astrobiology IV, R. B. Hoover, G. V. Levin, R. R. Paepe and A. Y. Rozanov, eds., NASA, SPIE Vol. 4495, pp. 120–130.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, J. C., Darmody, R. G., Schlyter, P., and Thorn, C. E., 1995, Preliminary investigation of geochemical process responses to potential environmental change in Kärkevagge, Northern Scandinavia, Geografiska Annaler 77A: 259–267.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dolanski, J., 1978, Silcrete skins—their significance in rock art weathering, in: Conservation of Rock Art, C. Pearson, ed., ICCM, Sydney, pp. 32–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., 1990, Quaternary alkalinity fluctuations recorded in rock varnish microlaminations on western U.S.A. volcanics, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 76: 291–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., 1997, Constraining the age of the Cˆoa valley (Portugal) engravings with radiocarbon dating, Antiquity 71: 105–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., 1998, Rock coatings, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 429p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., 2001, Chronometric techniques: Engravings, in: Handbook of Rock Art Research, D. S. Whitley, ed., Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, pp. 167–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., 2009, Rock varnish and its use to study climatic change in geomorphic settings, in: Geomorphology of Desert Environments. 2nd Edition., A. J. Parsons and A. Abrahams, ed., Springer, in press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., and Dickinson, W. R., 1989, First paleoenvironmental interpretation of a pre-Quaternary rock varnish site, Davidson Canyon, south Arizona, Geology 17: 1029–1031.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., and Dragovich, D., 1990, Interpretation of rock varnish in Australia: Case studies from the Arid Zone, Australian Geographer 21: 18–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., and Krinsley, D. H., 1991, Cation-leaching sites in rock varnish, Geology 19: 1077–1080.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., Krinsley, D. H., Liu, T., Anderson, S., Clark, J., Cahill, T. A., and Gill, T. E., 1992, Manganese-rich rock varnish does occur in Antarctica, Chemical Geology 99: 289–298.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., and Meek, N., 1995, Rapid formation of rock varnish and other rock coatings on slag deposits near Fontana, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 20: 547–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., and Oberlander, T. M., 1981, Microbial origin of desert varnish, Science 213: 1245–1247.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., and Oberlander, T. M., 1982, Rock varnish, Progress in Physical Geography 6: 317–367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorn, R. I., Stasack, E., Stasack, D., and Clarkson, P., 2001, Through the looking glass: Analyzing petroglyphs and geoglyphs with different perspectives, American Indian Rock Art 27: 77–96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, G. R., 1987, Manganese-rich rock coatings from Iceland, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 12: 301–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, G. R., McGreevy, J. P., and Whalley, W. B., 1994, Mineralogical aspects of crack development and freeface activity in some basalt cliffs, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, in: Rock weathering and landform evolution, D. A. Robinson and R. B. G. Williams, ed., Wiley, Chichester, pp. 71–88.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dragovich, D., 1986a, Minimum age of some desert varnish near Broken Hill, New South Wales, Search 17: 149–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dragovich, D., 1986b, Weathering of desert varnish by lichens, 21st I.A.G. Proceedings: 407–412.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake, N. A., Heydeman, M. T., and White, K. H., 1993, Distribution and formation of rock varnish in southern Tunisia, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18: 31–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drioli, E., Gagliardi, R., Donato, L., and Checcetti, A., 1995, CoPVDF membranes for protection of cultural heritages, Journal of Membrane Science 102: 131–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunkerley, D. L., 1987, Deposition of tufa on Ryans and Stockyard Creeks, Chillagoe Karst, North Queensland: the role of evaporation, Helictite 25: 30–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Engel, C. G., and Sharp, R. S., 1958, Chemical data on desert varnish, Geological Society of America Bulletin 69: 487–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ericksen, G. E., 1981, Geology and origin of the Chilean nitrate deposits, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1188.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fajardo-Cavazos, P., and Nicholson, W., 2006, Bacillus endospores isolated from granite: Close molecular relationships to globally distributed Bacillus spp. from endolithic and extreme environments, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72: 2856–2863.

    Google Scholar 

  • Farr, T., and Adams, J. B., 1984, Rock coatings in Hawaii, Geological Society of America Bulletin 95: 1077–1083.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisk, E. P., 1971, Desert glaze, Journal Sedimentary Petrology 41: 1136–1137.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fleisher, M., Liu, T., Broecker, W., and Moore, W., 1999, A clue regarding the origin of rock varnish, Geophysical Research Letters 26 (1): 103–106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flood, B. E., Allen, C., and Longazo, T., 2003, Microbial fossils detected in desert varnish, Astrobiology 2(4).

    Google Scholar 

  • Folk, R. L., 1978, Angularity and silica coatings of Simpson Desert sand grains, Northern Territory, Australia, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 48: 611–624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Folk, R. L., 1993, SEM imaging of bacteria and nanobacteria in carbonate sediments and rocks, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 63: 990–999.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, E. A., Posner, A. M., and Quirk, J. P., 1976, The specific adsorption of divalent Cd, Co, Cu, Pb, and Zn on goethite, Journal of Soil Science 27: 154–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fortescue, J. A. C., 1980, Environmental Geochemistry. A Holistic Approach, Springer-Verlag, New York, 347p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fortin, D., and Langley, S., 2005, Formation and occurrence of biogenic iron-rich minerals, Earth-Science Reviews 72: 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frazier, C. S., and Graham, R. C., 2000, Pedogenic transformation of fractured granitic bedrock, southern California, Soil Science Society of America Journal 64: 2057–2069.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fullagar, R. L. K., 1991, The role of silica in polish formation, Journal of Archaeological Science 18: 1–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller, S., 2000, Thomas Kuhn: A Philosophical History for Our Times, University Chicago Press, Chicago, 496 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fyfe, F., Schultze, S., Witten, T., Fyfe, W., and Beveridge, T., 1989, Metal interactions with microbial biofilms in acidic and neutral pH environments, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 55: 1249–1257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fyfe, W. S., 1996, The biosphere is going deep, Nature 273: 448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gehrmann, C., Krumbein, W. E., and Petersen, K., 1988, Lichen weathering activities on mineral and rock surfaces, Studia Geobotanica 8: 33–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, G. K., 1877, Geology of the Henry Mountains, U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey, Washington D.C., 160p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gile, L. H., Peterson, F. F., and Grossman, R. G., 1966, Morphological and genetic sequences of carbonate accumulation in desert soils, Soil Science 101: 347–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazovskaya, M. A., 1968, Geochemical landscape and types of geochemical soil sequences, Transactions of 9th International Congress Soil Science, Adelaide IV: 303–311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Glazovskaya, M. A., 1973, Technogiogeomes the intial physical geographic objects of landscape geochemical prediction, Soviet Geography Review and Translation 14(4): 215–228.

    Google Scholar 

  • Golubic, S., Friedmann, E., and Schneider, J., 1981, The lithobiontic ecological niche, with special reference to microorganisms, Journal Sedimentary Petrology 51: 475–478.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gorbushina, A. A., Krumbein, W. E., and Volkmann, M., 2002, Rock surfaces as life indicators: New ways to demonstrate life and traces of former life, Astrobiology 2(2): 203–213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, S. J., and Dorn, R. I., 2005a, In situ weathering rind erosion, Geomorphology 67: 97–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, S. J., and Dorn, R. I., 2005b, Localized weathering: Implications for theoretical and applied studies, Professional Geographer 57: 28–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goudie, A., 1972, Climate, weathering, crust formation, dunes, and fluvial features of the Central Namib Desert, near Gobabeb, South West Africa, Madoqua Series II 1: 15–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goudie, A., 1983, Calcrete, in: Chemical sediments and geomorphology: precipitates and residua in the near surface environment, A. Goudie and K. Pye, ed., Academic Press, New York, pp. 93–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goudie, A. S., and Cooke, R. U., 1984, Salt efflorescences and saline lakes: a distributional analysis, Geoforum 15: 563–582.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grab, S., van Zyl, C., and Mulder, N., 2005, Controls on basalt terrace formation in the eastern Lesotho highlands, Geomorphology 67: 473–485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham, R. C., and Franco-Vízcaino, E., 1992, Soils on igneous and metavolcanic rocks in the Sonoran Desert of Baja California, Mexico, Geoderma 54: 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ha-mung, T., 1968, The biological nature of iron-manganese crusts of soil-forming rocks in Sakhalin mountain soils, Microbiology 36: 621–624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haberland, W., 1975, Untersuchungen an Krusten, Wustenlacken und Polituren auf Gesteinsoberflachen der nordlichen und mittlerent Saharan (Libyen und Tchad), 21: 1–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, C. D., 1986, Investigation of desert rock varnish on a cobble from a stone burial mound at al-Farrah, al-Jubah Quadrangle, Yemen Arab Republic, in: Geological and Archaeological Reconnaissance in the Yemen Arab Republic, 1985, the Wadi Al-Jubah archaeological project. Volume 4, W. C. a. o. Overstreet, ed., American Foundation for the Study of Man, Washington D.C., pp. 41–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrington, C. D., and Raymond, R., Jr., 1989, SEM Analysis of Rock Varnish Chemistry: A Geomorphic Age Indicator, San Francisco Press, San Francisco, 567–570 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, R., and Frink, D. S., 2000, The OCR carbon dating procedure in Australia: New dates from Wilinyjibari Rockshelter, southeaster Kimberley, Western Australia, Australian Archaeology 51: 6–15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harry, K. G., Bierman, P. R., and Fratt, L., 1992, Lithic Procurement and Rock Varnish Dating: Investigations at CA-KER-140, a Small Quarry in the Western Mojave Desert, Statistical Research, Tucson, 129p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hayden, J., 1976, Pre-altithermal archaeology in the Sierra Pinacate, Sonora, Mexico, American Antiquity 41: 274–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazel, F., Schock, R. V., and Gordon, M., 1949, Interaction of ferric ions with silicic acid, Journal of the American Chemical Society 71: 2256–2257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Helms, J. G., McGill, S. F., and Rockwell, T. K., 2003, Calibrated, late Quaternary age indices using clast rubification and soil development on alluvial surfaces in Pilot Knob Valley, Mojave Desert, southeastern California, Quaternary Research 60: 377–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hetu, B., Vansteijn, H., and Vandelac, P., 1994, Flows of frost-coated clasts – A recently discovered scree slope grain-flow type, Geographie Physique et Quaternaire 48: 3–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hobbs, W. H., 1917, The erosional and degradational processes of deserts, with especial reference to the origin of desert depressions, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 7: 25–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodge, V. F., Farmer, D. E., Diaz, T. A., and Orndorff, R. L., 2005, Prompt detection of alpha particles from Po-210: another clue to the origin of rock varnish?, Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 78: 331–342.

    Google Scholar 

  • Holland, H. D., 1978, The Chemistry of the Atmosphere and Oceans, Wiley, New York, 351p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hooke, R. L., Yang, H., and Weiblen, P. W., 1969, Desert varnish: an electron probe study, Journal Geology 77: 275–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huguen, C., Benkhelil, J., Giresse, P., Mascle, J., Muller, C., Woodside, J., and Zitter, T., 2001, Clasts from ‘mud volcanoes’ from the eastern Mediterranean, Oceanologica Acta 24: 349–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hungate, B., Danin, A., Pellerin, N. B., Stemmler, J., Kjellander, P., Adams, J. B., and Staley, J. T., 1987, Characterization of manganese-oxidizing (MnII–>MnIV) bacteria from Negev Desert rock varnish: implications in desert varnish formation, Canadian Journal Microbiology 33: 939–943.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt, A. G., and Wu, J. Q., 2004, Climatic influences on Holocene variations in soil erosion rates on a small hill in the Mojave Desert, Geomorphology 58: 263–289.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huyge, D., Watchman, A., De Dapper, M., and Marchi, E., 2001, Dating Egypt’s oldest ‘art’: AMS 14C age determinations of rock varnishes covering petroglyphs at El-Hosh (Upper Egypt), Antiquity 75: 68–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • ICOMOS, 2000, International Scientific Committee on Rock Art,http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/isc-rockart_2000.htm (accessed 3/5/05).

  • Israel, E. J., Arvidson, R. E., Wang, A., Pasteris, J. D., and Jolliff, B. L., 1997, Laser Raman spectroscopy of varnished basalt and implications for in situ measurements of Martian rocks, Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets 102 (E12): 28705–28716.

    Google Scholar 

  • J.PaulGettyTrust, 2003, Conservation of rock art, http://www. getty.edu/conservation/education/rockart/ accessed July 9, 2005.

  • Jessup, R. W., 1951, The soils, geology, and vegetation of northwestern South Australia, Royal Society of South Australia Transactions 74: 189–273.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, J. R., Christensen, P. R., and Lucey, P. G., 2002, Dust coatings on basaltic rocks and implications for thermal infrared spectroscopy of Mars, Journal of Geophysical Research-Planets 107 (E6): Art No. 5035.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, C. E., 1991, Characteristics and origin of rock varnish from the hyperarid coastal deserts of northern Peru, Quaternary Research 35: 116–129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D., and Wilson, M. J., 1985, Chemical activity of lichens on mineral surfaces – a review, International Biodeterioration 21(2): 99–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Joubert, J. J., Kriel, W. C., and Wessels, D. C. J., 1983, Lichenometry: its potential application to archaeology in southern Africa, The South African Archaeological Society Newsletter 6(1): 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keyser, J. D., Greer, M., and Greer, J., 2005, Arminto petroglyphs: Rock art damage assessment and management considerations in Central Wyoming, Plains Anthropologist 50: 23–30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. G., Lee, G. H., Lee, J., Chon, C., Kim, T. H., and Ha, K., 2006, Infiltration pattern in a regolith-fractured bedrock profile: field observations of a dye stain pattern, Hydrological Processes 20: 241–250.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klute, F., and Krasser, L. M., 1940, über wüstenlackbildung im Hochgebirge, Petermanns geographische Mitteilungen 86: 21–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knauss, K. G., and Ku, T. L., 1980, Desert varnish: potential for age dating via uranium-series isotopes, Journal of Geology 88: 95–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konhauser, K. O., Fyfe, W. S., Ferris, F. G., and Beveridge, T. J., 1993, Metal sorption and mineral precipitation by bacteria in two Amazonian river systems: Rio Solimoes and Rio Negro, Brazeil, Geology 21: 1103–1106.

    Google Scholar 

  • Konhauser, K. O., Fyfe, W. S., Schultze-Lam, S., Ferris, F. G., and Beveridge, T. J., 1994, Iron phosphate precipitation by epilithic microbial biofilms in Arctic Canada, Canadian Journal Earth Science 31: 1320–1324.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krauskopf, K. B., 1956, Dissolution and precipitation of silica at low temperatures, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 10: 1–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krauskopf, K. B., 1957, Separation of manganese from iron in sedimentary processes, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 12: 61–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krinsley, D., 1998, Models of rock varnish formation constrained by high resolution transmission electron microscopy, Sedimentology 45: 711–725.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krinsley, D., Dorn, R. I., and Anderson, S., 1990, Factors that may interfere with the dating of rock varnish, Physical Geography 11: 97–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krinsley, D. H., Dorn, R. I., and Tovey, N. K., 1995, Nanometer-scale layering in rock varnish: implications for genesis and paleoenvironmental interpretation, Journal of Geology 103: 106–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krumbein, W. E., 1969, über den Einfluss der Mikroflora auf die Exogene Dynamik (Verwitterung und Krustenbildung), Geologische Rundschau 58: 333–363.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krumbein, W. E., 1971, Biologische Entstehung von wüstenlack, Umschau 71: 210–211.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krumbein, W. E., 1979, Photolithotrophic and chemoorganotrophic activity of bacteria and algae as related to beachrock formation and degradation (Gulf of Aqaba, Sinai), Geomicrobiology Journal 1: 139–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krumbein, W. E., and Jens, K., 1981, Biogenic rock varnishes of the Negev Desert (Israel): An ecological study of iron and manganese transformation by cyanobacteria and fungi, Oecologia 50: 25–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhlman, K. R., Allenbach, L. B., Ball, C. L., Fusco, W. G., La_Duc, M. T., Kuhlman, G. M., Anderson, R. C., Stuecker, T., Erickson, I. K., Benardini, J., and Crawford, R. L., 2005, Enumeration, isolation, and characterization of ultraviolet (UV-C) resistant bacteria from rock varnish in the Whipple Mountains, California, Icarus 174: 585–595.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kuhlman, K. R., Fusco, W. G., Duc, M. T. L., Allenbach, L. B., Ball, C. L., Kuhlman, G. M., Anderson, R. C., Erickson, K., Stuecker, T., Benardini, J., Strap, J. L., and Crawford, R. L., 2006, Diversity of microorganisms within rock varnish in the Whipple Mountains, California, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72: 1708–1715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lapeyrie, F., 1988, Oxalate synthesis from soil biocarbonate on the mycorhizzal fungus Paxillus involutes, Plant and Soil 110: 3–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laudermilk, J. D., 1931, On the origin of desert varnish, American Journal of Science 21: 51–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D. H., Tien, K. G., and Juang, C. H., 1996, Full-scale field experimentation of a new technique for protecting mudstone slopes, Taiwan, Engineering Geology 42: 51–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. R., and Bland, P. A., 2003, Dating climatic change in hot deserts using desert varnish on meteorite finds, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 206: 187–198.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee, M. R., and Parsons, I., 1999, Biomechanical and biochemical weathering of lichen-encrusted granite: Textural controls on organic-mineral interactions and deposition of silica-rich layers, Chemical Geology 161: 385–397.

    Google Scholar 

  • Leeder, M. R., Harris, T., and Kirkby, M. J., 1998, Sediment supply and climate change: implications for basin stratigraphy, Basin Research 10: 7–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Li, F. X., Margetts, S., and Fowler, I., 2001, Use of ‘chalk’ in rock climbing: sine quanon or myth?, Journal of Sports Sciences 19: 427–432.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linck, G., 1901, über die dunkelen Rinden der Gesteine der Wüste, Jenaische Zeitschrift für Naturwissenschaft 35: 329–336.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linck, G., 1928, über Schutzrinden, Chemie die Erde 4: 67–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, B., Phillips, F. M., Elmore, D., and Sharma, P., 1994, Depth dependence of soil carbonate accumulation based on cosmogenic 36Cl dating, Geology 22: 1071–1074.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., 1994. Visual microlaminations in rock varnish: a new paleoenvironmental and geomorphic tool in drylands. Ph.D. Dissertation, Visual microlaminations in rock varnish: a new paleoenvironmental and geomorphic tool in drylands, Ph.D. thesis, 173pp., Arizona State University, Tempe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., 2003, Blind testing of rock varnish microstratigraphy as a chronometric indicator: results on late Quaternary lava flows in the Mojave Desert, California, Geomorphology 53: 209–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., 2008, VML Dating Lab, http://www.vmldatinglab.com/ accessed November 14, 2008.

  • Liu, T., and Broecker, W. S., 2000, How fast does rock varnish grow?, Geology 28: 183–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., and Broecker, W., 2007, Holocene rock varnish microstratigraphy and its chronometric application in drylands of western USA, Geomorphology 84: 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., and Broecker, W.S., 2008a, Rock varnish microlamination dating of late Quatenary geomorphic features in the drylands of western USA. Geomorphology 93: 501–523.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., and Broecker, W.S., 2008b, Rock Varnish evidence for latest Pleistocene millennial-scale wet events in the drylands of western United States. Geology 36: 403–406.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., Broecker, W. S., Bell, J. W., and Mandeville, C., 2000, Terminal Pleistocene wet event recorded in rock varnish from the Las Vegas Valley, southern Nevada, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 161: 423–433.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, T., and Dorn, R. I., 1996, Understanding spatial variability in environmental changes in drylands with rock varnish microlaminations, Annals of the Association of American Geographers 86: 187–212.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lock, W. W., Andrews, J. T., and Webber, P. J., 1979, A manual for lichenometry, British Geomorphological Research Group Technical Bulletin 26: 1–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loendorf, L. L., 1991, Cation-ratio varnish dating and petroglyph chronology in southeastern Colorado, Antiquity 65: 246–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Loso, M. G., and Doak, D. F., 2006, The biology behind lichenometric dating curves, Oecologia 147: 233–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lou, G., and Huang, P. M., 1988, Hydroxyl-aluminosilicate interlayers in montmorillonite: implications for acidic environments, Nature 335: 625–627.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowenstam, H. A., 1981, Minerals formed by organisms, Science 211: 1126–1131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas, A., 1905, The blackened rocks of the Nile cataracts and of the Egyptian deserts, National Printing Department, Cairo, 58p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludwig, K. R., and Paces, J. B., 2002, Uranium-series dating of pedogenic silica and carbonate, Crater Flat, Nevada, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 66: 487–506.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lytle, F. W., Pingitore, N. E., Lytle, N. W., Ferris-Rowley, D., and Reheis, M. C., 2002, The possibility of dating petroglyphs from the growth rate of desert varnish, Nevada Archaeological Association Meetings Abstracts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Machette, M. N., 1985, Calcic soils of the southwestern United States, Geological Society of America Special Paper 203: 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mancinelli, R. L., Bishop, J. L., and De, S., 2002, Magnetite in desert varnish and applications to rock varnish on Mars, Lunar and Planetary Science 33: 1046.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mansfield, G. R., and Boardman, L., 1932, Nitrate deposits of the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 838.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, C. E., 1977, The physical chemistry and mineralogy of soils, Wiley, New York p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, R. R., 1962, Natural radioactivity and the origin of desert varnish, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 43: 446–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marston, R. A., 2003, Editorial note, Geomorphology 53: 197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matsukura, Y., Kimata, M., and Yokoyama, S., 1994, Formation of weathering rinds on andesite blocks under the influence of volcanic glases around the active crater Aso Volcano, Japan, in: Rock Weathering and Landform Evolution, D. A. Robinson and R. B. G. Williams, ed., Wiley, London, pp. 89–98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, J. A., and Shakesby, R. A., 1983, The status of the Little Ice Age in Southern Norway. Relative-age dating of Neoglacial moraines with Schmidt hammer and lichenometry, Boreas 13: 33–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • McFadden, L. D., Ritter, J. B., and Wells, S. G., 1989, Use of multiparameter relative-age methods for age estimation and correlation of alluvial fan surfaces on a desert piedmont, eastern Mojave Desert, Quaternary Research 32: 276–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKeown, D. A., and Post, J. E., 2001, Characterization of manganese oxide mineralogy in rock varnish and dendrites using X-ray absorption spectroscopy, American Mineralogist 86: 701–713.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKnight, D. M., Kimball, B. A., and Bencala, K. E., 1988, Iron photoreduction and oxidation in an acidic mountain stream, Science 240: 637–640.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meek, N., and Dorn, R. I., 2000, Is mushroom rock a ventifact?, Califonia Geology November/December: 18–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrill, G. P., 1906, A treatise on rocks, rock-weathering, and soils, Macmillan, New York, 400 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Monger, H. C., and Buck, B. J., 1999, Stable isotopes and soil-geomorphology as indicators of Holocene climate change, northern Chihuahuan Desert, Journal of Arid Environments 43: 357–373.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, C. B., and Elvidge, C. D., 1982, Desert varnish, in: Reference handbook on the deserts of North America, G. L. Bender, ed., Greenwood Press, Westport, pp. 527–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moreiras, S. M., 2006, Chronology of a probable neotectonic Pleistocene rock avalanche, Cordon del Plata (Central Andes),Mendoza,Argentina, Quaternary International 148: 138–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mottershead, D. N., and Pye, K., 1994, Tafoni on coastal slopes, South Devon, U.K., Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 19: 543–563.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mustoe, G. E., 1981, Bacterial oxidation of manganese and iron in a modern cold spring, Geological Society of America Bulletin 92: 147–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nagy, B., Nagy, L. A., Rigali, M. J., Jones, W. D., Krinsley, D. H., and Sinclair, N., 1991, Rock varnish in the Sonoran Desert: microbiologically mediated accumulation of manganiferous sediments, Sedimentology 38: 1153–1171.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nanson, G. C., Jones, B. G., Price, D. M., and Pietsch, T. J., 2005, Rivers turned to rock: Late Quaternary alluvial induration influencing the behaviour and morphology of an anabranching river in the Australian monsoon tropics, Geomorphology 70: 398–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nishiizumi, K., Kohl, C., Arnold, J., Dorn, R., Klein, J., Fink, D., Middleton, R., and Lal, D., 1993, Role of in situ cosmogenic nuclides 10Be and 26Al in the study of diverse geomorphic processes, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18: 407–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberlander, T. M., 1988, Salt crust preservation of pre-late Pleistocene slopes in the Atacama Desert, and relevance to the age of surface artifacts., Program Abstracts, Association of American Geographers, Phoenix Meeting: 143.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberlander, T. M., 1989, Slope and pediment systems, in: Arid Zone Geomorphology, D. S. G. Thomas, ed., Belhaven Press, London, pp. 56–84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oberlander, T. M., 1994, Rock varnish in deserts, in: Geomorphology of Desert Environments, A. Abrahams and A. Parsons, ed., Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 106–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, E., 2002. Feasibility and implications of a rock coating catena: analysis of a desert hillslope. M.A. Thesis, Masters thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, F. E., Staley, J. T., Murray, R. G. E., Counsell, T., and Adams, J. B., 1985, Identification of manganese-oxidizing bacteria from desert varnish, Geomicrobiology Journal 4: 343–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paradise, T. R., 2005, Petra revisited: An examination of sandstone weathering research in Petra, Jordan, Geological Society of America Special Paper 390: 39–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paraguassu, A. B., 1972, Experimental silicification of sandstone, Geological Society of America Bulletin 83: 2853–2858.

    Google Scholar 

  • Patyk-Kara, N. G., Gorelikova, N. V., Plakht, J., Nechelyustov, G. N., and Chizhova, I. A., 1997, Desert varnish as an indicator of the age of Quaternary formations (Makhtesh Ramon Depression, Central Negev), Transactions (Doklady) of the Russian Academy of Sciences/Earth Science Sections 353A: 348–351.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perel’man, A. I., 1961, Geochemical principles of landscape classification, Soviet Geography Review and Translation 11 (3): 63–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perel’man, A. I., 1966, Landscape geochemistry. (Translation No. 676, Geological Survey of Canada, 1972), Vysshaya Shkola, Moscow, 388p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perel’man, A. I., 1967, Geochemistry of epigenesis, Plenum Press, New York, 266 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perel’man, A. I., 1980, Paleogeochemical landscape maps, Geochemistry International 17(1): 39–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, R. S., and Adams, J., 1978, Desert varnish: evidence of cyclic deposition of manganese, Nature 276: 489–491.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, R. S., Dodsworth, J., Staley, J. T., and Engel, M. H., 2004, Bacterial diversity in desert varnish, in: Third European Workshop on Exo/Astrobiology, Mars: The Search for life, vol. SP-545, ed., European Space Agency Publications, Netherlands, pp. 259–260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, R. S., and Kolb, V. M., 2003, Biological and organic constituents of desert varnish: Review and new hypotheses, in: Instruments, methods, and missions for Astrobiology VII, vol. 5163, R. B. Hoover and A. Y. Rozanov, ed., SPIE, Bellingham, pp. 202–217.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, R. S., Kolb, V. N., Lynne, B. Y., Sephton, M. A., McLoughlin, N., Engel, M. H., Olendzenski, L., Brasier, M., and Staley, J. T., 2005, How desert varnish forms?, in: Astrobiology and Planetary Missions, R. B. Hoover, G. V. Levin, A. Y. Rozanov and G. R. Gladstone, ed., SPIE, SPIE Vol. 2906, pp. 276–287.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, R. S., Lynne, B. Y., Sephton, M. A., Kolb, V. M., Perry, C. C., and Staley, J. T., 2006, Baking black opal in the desert sun: The importance of silica in desert varnish, Geology 34: 737–540.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perry, R. S., and Lynne, Y. B., 2006, New insights into natural records of planetary surface environments: The role of silica in the formation and diagenesis of desert varnish and siliceous sinter, Lunar and Planetary Science 37: 1292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Polynov, B. B., 1937, The Cycle of Weathering. [Translated from the Russian by A. Muir], Nordemann Publishing, New York, pp. 220.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, G. A., 2000, Weathering of petroglyphs: Direct assessment and implications for dating methods, Antiquity 74: 833–843.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pope, G. A., Meierding, T. C., and Paradise, T. R., 2002, Geomorphology’s role in the study of weathering of cultural stone, Geomorphology 47: 211–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, R. M., 1979. The tetravalent manganese oxides: clarification of their structural variations and relationships and characterization of their occurrence in the terrestrial weathering environment as desert varnish and other manganese oxides. Ph.D. Dissertation, Ph.D. Dissertation thesis, 245 pp., California Institute of Technology, Pasadena.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, R. M., and Rossman, G. R., 1977, Desert varnish: The importance of clay minerals, Science 196: 1446–1448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, R. M., and Rossman, G. R., 1979a, The manganese- and iron-oxide mineralogy of desert varnish, Chemical Geology 25: 79–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, R. M., and Rossman, G. R., 1979b, Mineralogy of manganese dendrites and coatings, American Mineralogist 64: 1219–1226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Potter, R. M., and Rossman, G. R., 1979c, The tetravalent manganese oxides: identification, hydration, and structural relationships by infrared spectroscopy, American Mineralogist 64: 1199–1218.

    Google Scholar 

  • Probst, L., Thomas-Keprta, K., and Allen, C., 2001, Desert varnish: preservation of microfossils and biofabric (Earth and Mars?), GSA Abstracts With Programs http://gsa.confex. com/gsa/2001AM/finalprogram/abstract_27826.htm.

  • Probst, L. W., Allen, C. C., Thomas-Keprta, K. L., Clemett, S. J., Longazo, T. G., Nelman-Gonzalez, M. A., and Sams, C., 2002, Desert varnish – preservation of biofabrics and implications for Mars, Lunar and Planetary Science 33: 1764.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Puterman, M., Jansen, B., and Kober, H., 1998, Development of organosilicone-polyurethanes as stone preservation and consolidation materials, Journal of Applied Polymer Science 59: 1237–1242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reneau, S. L., 1993, Manganese accumulation in rock varnish on a desert piedmont, Mojave Desert, Califonria, and application to evaluating varnish development, Quaternary Research 40: 309–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, E. I., D’Agostino, J. P., Ostwald, J., Fanning, D. S., Carter, V., and Van Hoven, R. L., 1992, Manganese nodules and microbial oxidation of manganese in the huntley Meadows wetland, Virginia, USA, Catena Supplement 21: 179–202.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robbins, L. L., and Blackwelder, P. L., 1992, Biochemical and ultrastructural evidence for the origin of whitings: A biologically induced calcium carbonate precipitation mechanism, Geology 20: 464–468.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robert, M., and Tessier, D., 1992, Incipient weathering: some new concepts on weathering, clay formation and organization, in: Weathering, Soils & Paleosols, I. P. Martini and W. Chesworth, ed., Amsterdam, Elsevier, pp. 71–105.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, D. A., and Williams, R. B. G., 1992, Sandstone weathering in the High Atlas, Morocco, Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie 36: 413–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, S. E., 2002, Cosmogenic nuclides, remote sensing, and field studies applied to desert piedmonts, Dissertation thesis, 387pp., Arizona State University, Tempe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodriguez-Navarro, C., Rodriguez-Gallego, M., BenChekroun, K., and Gonzalez-Munoz, M. T., 2003, Conservation of ornamental stone by Myxococcus xanthus-induced carbonate biomineralization, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 69: 2182–2193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowe, M. W., 2001, Dating by AMS radiocarbon analysis, in: Handbook of Rock Art Research, D. S. Whitley, ed., Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, pp. 139–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russ, J., Hyman, M., Shafer, H. J., and Rowe, M. W., 1990, Radiocarbon dating of prehistoric rock paintings by selective oxidation of organic carbon, Nature 348: 710–711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russ, J., Loyd, D. H., and Boutton, T. W., 2000, A paleoclimate reconstruction for southwestern Texas using oxalate residue from lichen as a paleoclimate proxy, Quaternary International 67: 29–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russ, J., Palma, R. L., Lloyd, D. H., Boutton, T. W., and Coy, M. A., 1996, Origin of the whewellite-rich rock crust in the Lower Pecos region of Southwest Texas and its significance to paleoclimate reconstructions, Quaternary Research 46: 27–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saiz-Jimenez, C., and Hermosin, B., 1999, Thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation of the black deposit coating the ceiling and walls of Cueva del Encajero, Quesada, Spain, Journal of Analytic and Applied Pyrolysis 49: 349–357.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer, F., Meyer, B., and Kalk, E., 1963, Biologische ursachen der wüstenlackbildung, Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 7: 112–119.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scheidegger, A., Borkovec, M., and Sticher, H., 1993, Coating of silica sand with goethite: preparation and analytical identification, Geoderma 58: 43–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schelble, R., McDonald, G., Hall, J., and Nealson, K., 2005, Community structure comparison using FAME analysis of desert varnish and soil, Mojave Desert, California, Geomicrobiology Journal 22: 353–360.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiavon, N., 1993, Microfabrics of weathered granite in urban monuments, in: Conservation of stone and other materials, vol. 1, M.-J. Thiel, ed., E & FN Spon, London, pp. 271–278.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. J., 1994, Weathering processes and forms, in: Geomorphology of Desert Environments, A. D. Abrahams and A. J. Parsons, ed., Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 39–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. J., and Warke, P. A., Processes of Urban Stone Decay, Donhead Publishing, London, 1996, p. 274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, B. J., and Whalley, W. B., 1988, A note on the characteristics and possible origins of desert varnishes from southeast Morocco, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 13: 251–258.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, G. A., and Turner, W. G., 1975, Indian Rock art of Southern California with Selected Petroglyph Catalog, San Bernardino County Museum Association, Redlands, pp. 150.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smoot, N. C., 1995, Mass wasting and subaerial weathering in guyot formation: the Hawaiian and Canary Ridges as examples, Geomorphology 14: 29–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Souza-Egipsy, V., Wierzchos, J., Sancho, C., Belmonte, A., and Ascaso, C., 2004, Role of biological soil crust cover in bioweathering and protection of sandstones in a semi-arid landscape (Torrollones de Gabarda, Huesca, Spain), Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 29: 1651–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spades, S., and Russ, J., 2005, GC-MS analysis of lipids in prehistoric rock paints and associated oxalate coatings from the lower Pecos region, Texas, Archaeometry 45: 115–126.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spilde, M. N., Boston, P. J., and Northrup, D. E., 2002, Subterranean manganese deposits in caves: Analogies to rock varnish?, Geological Society of American Abstracts with Programs http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2002AM/finalprogram/abstract_46060.htm.

  • Spilde, M. N., Boston, P. J., Northup, D., and Dichosa, A., 2005, Surface and subsurface manganese microbial environments, SPIE Annual Salt Lake City Meeting.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stadelman, S., 1994, Genesis and post-formational systematics of carbonate accumulations in Quaternary soils of the Southwestern United States, Ph.D. Dissertation thesis, 124 pp., Texas Tech University, Lubbock.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staiger, J. W., Marchant, D. R., Schaefer, J. M., Oberholzer, P., Johnson, J. V., Lewis, A. R., and Swanger, K. M., 2006, Plio-Pleistocene history of Ferrar Glacier, Antarctica: Implications for climate and ice sheet stability, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 243: 489–503.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staley, J. T., Adams, J. B., Palmer, F., Long, A., Donahue, D. J., and Jull, A. J. T., 1991, Young 14Carbon ages of rock varnish coatings from the Sonoran Desert, Unpublished Manuscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Staley, J. T., Palmer, F., and Adams, J. B., 1982, Microcolonial fungi: common inhabitants on desert rocks?, Science 215: 1093–1095.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sterflinger, K., Krumbein, W. E., Lallau, T., and Rullkötter, J., 1999, Microbially mediated orange patination of rock surfaces, Ancient Biomolecules 3: 51–65.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, J. J., 71881, Report on the U.S. Geographical Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian (Wheeler Survey), V. III. Supplement-Geology, U.S. Army Engineer Department, Washington, 420p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stretch, R. C., and Viles, H. A., 2002, The nature and rate of weathering by lichens on laval flows on Lanzarote, Geomorphology 47: 87–94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thiagarajan, N., and Lee, C. A., 2004, Trace-element evidence for the origin of desert varnish by direct aqueous atmospheric deposition, Earth and Planetary Science Letters 224: 131–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thoma, S. G., Gallegos, D. P., and Smith, D. M., 1992, Impact of fracture coatings on fracture/matrix flow interactions in unsaturated, porous media, Water Resources Research 28: 1357–1367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tiano, P., 2004, Innovative treatments for stone conservation, Corrosion Reviews 22: 365–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tratebas, A. M., Cerveny, N., and Dorn, R. I., 2004, The effects of fire on rock art: Microscopic evidence reveals the importance of weathering rinds, Physical Geography 25: 313–333.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trueman, N., 1965, The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island, Journal Geological Society Australia 12: 261–283.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urrutia, M. M., and Beveridge, T. J., 1994, Formation of fine-grained metal and silicate precipitates on a bacterial surface (Bacillus subtilis), Chemical Geology 116: 261–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urzì, C., Krumbein, W. E., and Warscheid, T., 1992, On the question of biogenic color changes of Mediterranean monuments (coatings – crust – microstromatolite – patina – scialbatura – skin – rock varnish), in: II. International Symposium for the Conservation of Monuments in the Mediterranean Basin, D. Decrouez, J. Chamay and F. Zezza, ed., Musée d’Histoire Naturelle, Geneva, pp. 397–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vardenoe, W. W., 1965, A hypothesis for the formation of rimstone dams and gours, National Speleological Society Bulletin 27: 151–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Varner, G. R., 2003, The destruction of America’s Cultural Resources,http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp? AuthorID=1215…id=10400 (accessed 3/8/05).

  • Vicini, S., Princi, E., Pedemonte, E., Lazzari, M., and Chiantore, O., 2004, In situ polymerization of unfluorinated and fluorinated acrylic copolymers for the conservation of stone, Journal of Applied Polymer Science 91: 3202–3213.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viles, H., 1995, Ecological perspectives on rock surface weathering: towards a conceptual model, Geomorphology 13: 21–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viles, H. A., 2001, Scale issues in weathering studies, Geomorphology 41: 61–72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viles, H. A., and Goudie, A. S., 1990, Tufas, travertines and allied carbonate deposits, Progress in Physical Geography 14: 19–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viles, H. A., and Goudie, A. S., 2004, Biofilms and case hardening on sandstones from Al-Quawayra, Jordan, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 29: 1473–1485.

    Google Scholar 

  • Villa, N., Dorn, R. I., and Clark, J., 1995, Fine material in rock fractures: aeolian dust or weathering?, in: Desert aeolian processes, V. Tchakerian, ed., Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 219–231.

    Google Scholar 

  • von Humboldt, A., 1812, Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America During the Years 1799-1804 V. II (Translated and Edited by T. Ross in 1907), George Bell & Sons, London, 521 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., McDonald, E., Amundson, R., McFadden, L., and Chadwick, O., 1996, An isotopic study of soils in chronological sequences of alluvial deposits, Providence Mountains, California, Geological Society of America Bulletin 108: 379–391.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. X., and Hua, P. D., 1998, The environment, composition, and protection of Dazu rock inscriptions, Environmental Geology 33: 295–300.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wasklewicz, T., Staley, D., Volker, H., and Whitley, D. S., 2005, Terrestrial 3D laser scanning: A new method for recording rock art, INORA 41: 16–25.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., 1985, Mineralogical analysis of silica skins covering rock art, Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Canberra, 281–289 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., 1990, A summary of occurrences of oxalate-rich crusts in Australia, Rock Art Research 7: 44–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., 1992, Composition, formation and age of some Australian silica skins, Australian Aboriginal Studies 1992 (1): 61–66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., 1997, Differences of Interpretation for Foz Cˆoa Dating Results, National Pictographic Society Newsletter 8 (1): 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., 2000, A review of the history of dating rock varnishes, Earth-Science Reviews 49: 261–277.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., 2002, A reply to Whitley and Simon, INORA 34: 11–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., David, B., and McNiven, I., Flood, J., 2000, Microarchaeology of engraved and painted rock surface crusts at Yiwaralarlay (The Lightning Brothers site), Northern Territory, Australia, Journal of Archaeological Science 27: 315–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watchman, A., O’Connor, S., and Jones, R., 2005, Dating oxalate minerals 20–45 ka, Journal of Archaeological Science 32: 369–374.

    Google Scholar 

  • Watson, A., 1988, Desert gypsum crusts as palaeoenvironmental indicators: A micropetrographic study of crusts from southern Tunisia and the central Namib Desert, Journal of Arid Environments 15: 19–42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wayne, D. M., Diaz, T. A., Fairhurst, R. J., Orndorff, R. L., and Pete, D. V., 2006, Direct major-and trace-element analyses of rock varnish by high resolution laser ablation inductively-coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICPMS), Applied Geochemistry 21: 1410–1431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, C. E., 1978, Mn-Fe Coatings on saprolite fracture surfaces, Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 48: 595–610.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weed, R., and Norton, S. A., 1991, Siliceous crusts, quartz rinds and biotic weathering of sandstones in the cold desert of Antarctica, in: Diversity of environmental biogeochemistry (Developments in Geochemistry, Vol. 6), J. Berthelin, ed., Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 327–339.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalley, W. B., 1978, Scanning electron microscope examination of a laboratory-simulated silcrete, in: Scanning electron microscopy in the study of sediments, W. B. Whalley, ed., Geo-Abstracts, Norwich, pp. 399–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalley, W. B., Gellatly, A. F., Gordon, J. E., and Hansom, J. D., 1990, Ferromanganese rock varnish in North Norway: a subglacial origin, Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 15: 265–275.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, C. H., 1924, Desert varnish, American Journal of Science 7: 413–420.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, K., 1990, Spectral reflectance characteristics of rock varnish in arid areas, School of Geography University of Oxford Research Paper 46: 1–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, K., 1993a, Image processing of Thematic Mapper data for discriminating piedmont surficial materials in the Tunisian Southern Atlas, International Journal of Remote Sensing 14: 961–977.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, K., 1993b, Mapping the distribution and abundance of gypsum in South-Central Tunisia from Landsat Thematic Mapper data, Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 37: 309–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, D. S., 2001, Rock art and rock art research in worldwide perspective: an introduction, in: Handbook of Rock art Research, D. S. Whitley, ed., Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, pp. 7–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, D. S., 2005, Introduction to Rock Art Research, Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, 215 p.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, D. S., and Annegarn, H. J., 1994, Cation-ratio dating of rock engravings from Klipfontein, Northern Cape Province, South Africa, in: Contested Images: Diversity in Southern African Rock art Research, T. A. Dowson and J. D. Lewis-Williams, eds., University of Witwatersrand Press, Johannesburg, pp. 189–197.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, D. S., and Simon, J. M., 2002a, Recent AMS radiocarbon rock engraving dates, INORA 32: 11–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, D. S., and Simon, J. M., 2002b, Reply to Huyge and Watchman, INORA 34: 12–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitley, D. S., Simon, J. M., and Dorn, R. I., 1999, Vision quest in the Coso Range, American Indian Rock Art 25: 1–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitney, K. D., and Arnott, H. J., 1987, Calcium oxalate crystal morphology and development in Agaricus bisporus, Mycologia 79: 180–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, R., and Robinson, D., 1989, Origin and distribution of polygonal cracking of rock surfaces, Geografiska Annaler 71A: 145–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worsley, P., 1990, Lichenometry, in: Geomorphological Techniques, Second Edition, A. Goudie, ed., Unwin Hyman, London, pp. 422–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zák, K., and Skála, R., 1993, Carbon isotopic composition of whewellite (CaC2O4 … H2O) from different geological environments and its significance, Chemical Geology (Isotope Geosciences Section) 106: 123–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zanin, Y. N., 1989, Phosphate-bearing weathering crusts and their related deposits, in: Weathering: Its products and deposits. Volume II. Products – Deposits – Geotechnics, A. Barto-Kryiakidis, ed., Theophrastus Publications, Athens, pp. 321–367.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, B. J., Yin, H. Y., Chen, D. Y., Shen, Z. Y., and Lu, H. M., 2001, The crude ca-oxalate conservation film on historic stone, Journal of Inorganic Materials 16: 752–756.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhang, Y., Liu, T., and Li, S., 1990, Establishment of a cation-leaching curve of rock varnish and its application to the boundary region of Gansu and Xinjiang, western China, Seismology and Geology (Beijing) 12: 251–261.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, B. G., Liu, T., and Zhang, Y. M., 2000, Rock varnish microlaminations from northern Tianshan, Xinjiang and their paleoclimatic implications, Chinese Science Bulletin 45: 372–376.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhu, X., Wang, J., and Chen, J., 1985, Preliminary studies on the ‘litholac’ soaking on the Gobi rock surface in Gobi Desert, in: Quaternary Geology and Environment of China, Q. R. A. o. China, ed., China Ocean Press, Bejing, p. 129.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zorin, Z. M., Churaev, N., Esipova, N., Sergeeva, I., Sobolev, V., and Gasanov, E., 1992, Influence of cationic surfactant on the surface charge of silica and on the stability of acqueous wetting films, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 152: 170–182.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Dorn, R.I. (2009). Desert Rock Coatings. In: Parsons, A.J., Abrahams, A.D. (eds) Geomorphology of Desert Environments. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5719-9_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics