Abstract
DNA binding fluorescent proteins are a powerful tool for single-molecule visualization. In this chapter, we discuss a protocol for the synthesis of DNA binding fluorescent proteins and visualization of single DNA molecules. This chapter includes stepwise methods for molecular cloning, reversible staining, two-color staining, sequence-specific staining, and microscopic visualization of single DNA molecules in a microfluidic device. This content will be useful for DNA characterization using DNA binding fluorescent proteins and its visualization at the single-molecule level.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Lakadamyali M, Cosma MP (2015) Advanced microscopy methods for visualizing chromatin structure. FEBS Lett 589(20):3023–3030
Pamula MC, Carlini L, Forth S, Verma P, Suresh S, Legant WR, Khodjakoy A, Betzig E, Kapoor TM (2019) High-resolution imaging reveals how the spindle midzone impacts chromosome movement. J Cell Biol 218(8):2529–2544
Krutilina RI, Oei SL, Buchlow G, Yau PM, Zalensky AO, Zalenskaya IA, Bradbury EM, Tomilin NV (2001) A negative regulator of telomere-length protein TRF1 is associated with interstitial (TTAGGG)n blocks in immortal Chinese hamster ovary cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 280(2):471–475
Lawrimore J, Bloom KS, Salmon ED (2011) Point centromeres contain more than a single centromere-specific Cse4 (CENP-A) nucleosome. J Cell Biol 195(4):573–582
Mora-Bermudez F, Ellenberg J (2007) Measuring structural dynamics of chromosomes in living cells by fluorescence microscopy. Methods 41(2):158–167
Bystricky K (2015) Chromosome dynamics and folding in eukaryotes: insights from live cell microscopy. FEBS Lett 589(20 Pt A):3014–3022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.febslet.2015.07.012
Trinkle-Mulcahy L, Lamond AI (2007) Toward a high-resolution view of nuclear dynamics. Science 318(5855):1402–1407
Gasser SM (2002) Nuclear architecture – visualizing chromatin dynamics in interphase nuclei. Science 296(5572):1412–1416
Klotz AR, Narsimhan V, Soh BW, Doyle PS (2017) Dynamics of DNA knots during chain relaxation. Macromolecules 50(10):4075–4083
Lee S, Lee Y, Kim Y, Wang C, Park J, Jung GY, Chen YL, Chang R, Ikeda S, Sugiyama H, Jo K (2019) Nanochannel-confined TAMRA-polypyrrole stained DNA stretching by varying the ionic strength from micromolar to millimolar concentrations. Polymers-Basel 11(1):15
Lee J, Kim S, Jeong H, Jung GY, Chang R, Chen YL, Jo K (2014) Nanoslit confined DNA at low ionic strengths. ACS Macro Lett 3(9):926–930. https://doi.org/10.1021/Mz500396t
Lee S, Oh Y, Lee J, Choe S, Lim S, Lee HS, Jo K, Schwartz DC (2016) DNA binding fluorescent proteins for the direct visualization of large DNA molecules. Nucleic Acids Res 44(1):e6–e6
Giemsa G (1904) Eine Vereinfachung und Vervollkommnung meiner Methylenblau-Eosin-Färbemethode zur Erzielung der Romanowsky-Nocht’schen Chromatinfärbung. Centralblatt für Bakteriologie I Abteilung 32:307–313
Aaij C, Borst P (1972) The gel electrophoresis of DNA. Biochim Biophys Acta (BBA) Nucleic Acids Protein Synth 269(2):192–200. https://doi.org/10.1016/0005-2787(72)90426-1
Russell WC, Newman C, Williamson DH (1975) A simple cytochemical technique for demonstration of DNA in cells infected with mycoplasmas and viruses. Nature 253(5491):461–462. https://doi.org/10.1038/253461a0
Seiji Matsumoto KM, Yanagida M (1981) Light microscopic structure of DNA in solution studied by the 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole staining method. J Mol Biol 152(2):501–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-2836(81)90255-2
Morikawa K, Yanagida M (1981) Visualization of individual DNA molecules in solution by light microscopy: DAPI staining method. J Biochem 89(2):693–696
Glazer AN, Rye HS (1992) Stable dye-DNA intercalation complexes as reagents for high-sensitivity fluorescence detection. Nature 359(6398):859–861
Zohar H, Muller SJ (2011) Labeling DNA for single-molecule experiments: methods of labeling internal specific sequences on double-stranded DNA. Nanoscale 3(8):3027–3039. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1nr10280j
Lee J, Kim Y, Lee S, Jo K (2015) Visualization of large elongated DNA molecules. Electrophoresis 36(17):2057–2071. https://doi.org/10.1002/elps.201400479
Vranken C, Deen J, Dirix L, Stakenborg T, Dehaen W, Leen V, Hofkens J, Neely RK (2014) Super-resolution optical DNA mapping via DNA methyltransferase-directed click chemistry. Nucleic Acids Res 42(7):e50. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt1406
Jo K, Dhingra DM, Odijk T, de Pablo JJ, Graham MD, Runnheim R, Forrest D, Schwartz DC (2007) A single-molecule barcoding system using nanoslits for DNA analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104(8):2673–2678. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0611151104
Lee J, Park HS, Lim S, Jo K (2013) Visualization of UV-induced damage on single DNA molecules. Chem Commun (Camb) 49(42):4740–4742. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3cc38884k
Paramanathan T, Reeves D, Friedman LJ, Kondev J, Gelles J (2014) A general mechanism for competitor-induced dissociation of molecular complexes. Nat Commun 5:5207. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms6207
Tang X, Zhang J, Sun J, Wang Y, Wu J, Zhang L (2013) Caged nucleotides/nucleosides and their photochemical biology. Org Biomol Chem 11(45):7814–7824. https://doi.org/10.1039/c3ob41735b
Xiao M, Phong A, Ha C, Chan TF, Cai D, Leung L, Wan E, Kistler AL, DeRisi JL, Selvin PR, Kwok PY (2007) Rapid DNA mapping by fluorescent single molecule detection. Nucleic Acids Res 35(3):e16. https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkl1044
Kounovsky-Shafer KL, Hernandez-Ortiz JP, Potamousis K, Tsvid G, Place M, Ravindran P, Jo K, Zhou S, Odijk T, de Pablo JJ, Schwartz DC (2017) Electrostatic confinement and manipulation of DNA molecules for genome analysis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 114(51):13400–13405. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1711069114
Robert K, Neely PD, Hotta J-i, Urbanavičiūtė G, Klimašauskas S, Hofkens J (2010) DNA fluorocode: a single molecule, optical map of DNA with nanometre resolution. Chem Sci 1(4):453–460
Nyberg LK, Persson F, Berg J, Bergstrom J, Fransson E, Olsson L, Persson M, Stalnacke A, Wigenius J, Tegenfeldt JO, Westerlund F (2012) A single-step competitive binding assay for mapping of single DNA molecules. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 417(1):404–408. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.11.128
Lee S, Kawamoto Y, Vaijayanthi T, Park J, Bae J, Kim-Ha J, Sugiyama H, Jo K (2018) TAMRA-polypyrrole for A/T sequence visualization on DNA molecules. Nucleic Acids Res 46(18):e108
Davenport D, Nicol JAC (1955) Luminescence in hydromedusae. Proc R Soc Lond Ser B Biol Sci 144(916):399–411
Osamu Shimomura FHJ, Saiga Y (1962) Extraction, purification and properties of aequorin, a bioluminescent protein from the luminous hydromedusan, Aequorea. J Cell Comp Physiol 59(3):223–239. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.1030590302
Prasher DC, Eckenrode VK, Ward WW, Prendergast FG, Cormier MJ (1992) Primary structure of the Aequorea-victoria green-fluorescent protein. Gene 111(2):229–233
Chalfie M, Tu Y, Euskirchen G, Ward WW, Prasher DC (1994) Green fluorescent protein as a marker for gene-expression. Science 263(5148):802–805
Davidson MW, Campbell RE (2009) Engineered fluorescent proteins: innovations and applications. Nat Methods 6(10):713–717
Shaner NC, Patterson GH, Davidson MW (2007) Advances in fluorescent protein technology. J Cell Sci 120(24):4247–4260
Matz MV, Fradkov AF, Labas YA, Savitsky AP, Zaraisky AG, Markelov ML, Lukyanov SA (1999) Fluorescent proteins from nonbioluminescent Anthozoa species. Nat Biotechnol 17(10):969–973
Shaner NC, Campbell RE, Steinbach PA, Giepmans BNG, Palmer AE, Tsien RY (2004) Improved monomeric red, orange and yellow fluorescent proteins derived from Discosoma sp red fluorescent protein. Nat Biotechnol 22(12):1567–1572
Shaner NC, Lin MZ, McKeown MR, Steinbach PA, Hazelwood KL, Davidson MW, Tsien RY (2008) Improving the photostability of bright monomeric orange and red fluorescent proteins. Nat Methods 5(6):545–551
Shcherbo D, Murphy CS, Ermakova GV, Solovieva EA, Chepurnykh TV, Shcheglov AS, Verkhusha VV, Pletnev VZ, Hazelwood KL, Roche PM, Lukyanov S, Zaraisky AG, Davidson MW, Chudakov DM (2009) Far-red fluorescent tags for protein imaging in living tissues. Biochem J 418:567–574
Jin X, Hapsari ND, Lee S, Jo K (2020) DNA binding fluorescent proteins as single-molecule probes. Analyst 145(12):4079–4095. https://doi.org/10.1039/d0an00218f
Shu XK, Shaner NC, Yarbrough CA, Tsien RY, Remington SJ (2006) Novel chromophores and buried charges control color in mFruits. Biochemistry 45(32):9639–9647
Baird GS, Zacharias DA, Tsien RY (2000) Biochemistry, mutagenesis, and oligomerization of DsRed, a red fluorescent protein from coral. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 97(22):11984–11989
Costantini LM, Snapp EL (2013) Fluorescent proteins in cellular organelles: serious pitfalls and some solutions. DNA Cell Biol 32(11):622–627
Ratz M, Testa I, Hell SW, Jakobs S (2015) CRISPR/Cas9-mediated endogenous protein tagging for RESOLFT super-resolution microscopy of living human cells. Sci Rep 5:9592
Stewart-Ornstein J, Lahav G (2016) Dynamics of CDKN1A in single cells defined by an endogenous fluorescent tagging toolkit. Cell Rep 14(7):1800–1811
Lee S, Wang C, Song J, Kim DG, Oh Y, Ko W, Lee J, Park J, Lee HS, Jo K (2016) Investigation of various fluorescent protein-DNA binding peptides for effectively visualizing large DNA molecules. RSC Adv 6(52):46291–46298. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6ra08683g
Kim KI, Lee S, Jin X, Kim SJ, Jo K, Lee JH (2017) DNA binding peptide directed synthesis of continuous DNA nanowires for analysis of large DNA molecules by scanning electron microscope. Small 13(2). https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201601926
Kim KI, Yoon S, Chang J, Lee S, Cho HH, Jeong SH, Jo K, Lee JH (2020) Multifunctional heterogeneous carbon nanotube nanocomposites assembled by DNA-binding peptide anchors. Small 16(5):e1905821. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.201905821
Shin E, Kim W, Lee S, Bae J, Kim S, Ko W, Seo HS, Lim S, Lee HS, Jo K (2019) Truncated TALE-FP as DNA staining dye in a High-salt buffer. Sci Rep 9(1):17197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-53722-0
Park J, Lee S, Won N, Shin E, Kim SH, Chun MY, Gu J, Jung GY, Lim KI, Jo K (2019) Single-molecule DNA visualization using AT-specific red and non-specific green DNA-binding fluorescent proteins. Analyst 144(3):921–927. https://doi.org/10.1039/c8an01426d
Giepmans BNG, Adams SR, Ellisman MH, Tsien RY (2006) Review – the fluorescent toolbox for assessing protein location and function. Science 312(5771):217–224
Dyachok O, Isakov Y, Sagetorp J, Tengholm A (2006) Oscillations of cyclic AMP in hormone-stimulated insulin-secreting beta-cells. Nature 439(7074):349–352. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature04410
Shemiakina II, Ermakova GV, Cranfill PJ, Baird MA, Evans RA, Souslova EA, Staroverov DB, Gorokhovatsky AY, Putintseva EV, Gorodnicheva TV, Chepurnykh TV, Strukova L, Lukyanov S, Zaraisky AG, Davidson MW, Chudakov DM, Shcherbo D (2012) A monomeric red fluorescent protein with low cytotoxicity. Nat Commun 3:1204. https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms2208
Shen Y, Chen Y, Wu J, Shaner NC, Campbell RE (2017) Engineering of mCherry variants with long Stokes shift, red-shifted fluorescence, and low cytotoxicity. PLoS One 12(2):e0171257. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171257
Acknowledgments
The authors thank Dr. SH Lee, Ms. JH Park, Ms. EJ Shin, and Ms. WJ Kim for assisting in the development of FP-DBP. This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2016R1A6A1A03012845 and NRF-2020R1A2B5B02001831).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Jin, X., Kim, Y.T., Jo, K. (2023). DNA Visualization Using Fluorescent Proteins. In: Sharma, M. (eds) Fluorescent Proteins. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2564. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2667-2_11
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-2667-2_11
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-2666-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-2667-2
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols