Abstract
In this chapter we focus on processes that underlie successful wayfinding by those traveling without the help of vision. Particular emphasis is placed on how travelers develop and use cognitive maps. We discuss both the cognitive mapping process and wayfinding, emphasizing the skills that have to be developed with and without the aid of assistive technology. Both experimental and real world examples are used to illustrate the skills, abilities, and processes needed for successful travel without vision. Throughout, our emphasis is on wayfinding by adult populations.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
Andrews, S.K. (1983). Spatial cognition through tactual maps. In Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Maps and Graphics for the Visually Handicapped (J. Wiedel, ed.). Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers, pp. 30–40.
Bell, S.M. (1994). Cartographic presentation as an aid to spatial knowledge acquisition in unknown environments. Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Geography. University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California.
Bentzen, B.L. (1980). Orientation aids. In Foundations of orientation and mobility (R. Welsh and B. Blasch, eds.). New York: American Foundation of the Blind, pp. 291–345.
Brambring, M. (1976). The structure of haptic space in the blind and sighted. Psychological Research 38, 283–302.
Banerjee, M. (1928) Blindfold description of distance. Indian Journal of Psychology 3, 95–99
Brabyn, J. (1985). A review of mobility aids and means of assessment. In Electronic spatial sensing for the blind — contributions from perception, rehabilitation, and computer vision (D.H. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds.). Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 13–27.
Carpenter, P.A. and Eisenberg, P. (1978). Mental rotation and the frame of reference in blind and sighted individuals. Perception and Psychophysics 23, 117–124.
Casey, S.M. (1978). Cognitive mapping by the blind. Journal of Vision Impairment and Blindness 72,8: 297–301.
Cicinelli, J. (1989). Veer as a function of preview and walking speed. Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Psychology. University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California.
Cleaves, W.T. and Royal, R.W. (1979). Spatial memory four configurations by congenitally blind, late blind, and sighted adults. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 73, 13–19.
Collins, C.C. (1985). On mobility aids for the blind. In Electronic spatial sensing for the blind: Contributions from perception, rehabilitation, and computer vision (D.H. Warren and E.R. Strelow, eds.). Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publications, pp. 35–64.
Cratty, B.J. (1965). Conceptual thresholds of nonvisual locomotion: part 1. Department of Physical Education Monograph (NIH Grant #NB05577-0251) Los Angeles: University of California.
Cratty, B.J. and Williams, H.G. (1966). Perceptual thresholds of nonvisual locomotion: part 2. Department of Physical Education Monograph (NIH Grant #NB05577-0251) Los Angeles: University of California.
D’Oliveira, E. J. (1939). Place of the pilot in formation flight. Reviste Medicina Latina Americana 24, 1232–1235.
Dodds, A.G. (1983). Mental rotation and visual imagery. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 77, 16–18.
Dodds, A.G. (1988). Mobility training for visually handicapped people, London: Croom Helm.
Dodds, A.G., Howarth, C.I. and Carter, D. (1982). The Mental Maps of the Blind; The role of previous visual experience. Journal of Vision Impairment and Blindness 76,1: 5–12.
Downs, R.M., and Stea, D. (eds.) (1973). Image and environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior. Chicago: Aldine.
Eliot, J., and McFarlane-Smith, I.M. (1983). An international directory of spatial tests, Oxford: NFER-Nelson Publishing Company.
Fletcher, J.F. (1980). Spatial representations in blind children, 1: Development compared to sighted children. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 74,10: 381–385.
Foulke, E. (1971). The perceptual basis for mobility. Research Bulletin of the American Foundation for the Blind 23, 1–8.
Foulke, E. (1982). Perception, cognition and the mobility of blind pedestrians. In Spatial abilities: Development and physiological foundations (M. Potegal ed.). New York: Academic Press, pp. 55–76.
Fujita, N., Loomis, J.M., Klatzky, R.L., and Golledge, R.G. (1990). A minimal representation for dead-reckoning navigation: Updating the homing vector. Geographical Analysis 22,4: 326–335.
Fujita, N., Klatzky, R.L., Loomis, J.M., and Golledge, R.G. (1993). The encoding-error model of pathway completion without vision. Geographic Analysis 25,4: 295–314.
Gallistel, C.R. (1990). The Organization of Learning, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Garling, T., and Golledge, R.G. (1989). Environmental perception and cognition. In Advances in environment, behavior, and design, Volume 2 (E.H. Zube and G.T. Moore, eds.). New York: Plenum Press, pp. 203–236.
Golledge, R.G. (1991). Tactual strip maps as navigational aids. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 85,7: 296–301.
Golledge, R.G., Rivizzigno, V.L., and Spector, A. (1974). Analytical methods for recovering cognitive information about a city. Paper presented to IGU Regional Conference, Palmerston, New Zealand.
Harris, J. C. (1967). Veering tendency as a function of anxiety in the blind. American Foundation of the Blind Research Bulletin 14, 53–63
Hart, R.A., and Moore, G.T. (1973). The development of spatial cognition: A review. In Image and environment: Cognitive mapping and spatial behavior (R.M. Downs and D. Stea, eds.). Chicago: Aldine, pp. 246–288.
Hill, E., and Blasch, B.B. (1980). Concept Development. In Foundations of Orientation and Mobility (R.L. Welch and B.B. Blasch, eds.). New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Hill, E.W., Rieser, J.J., Hill, M.M., Hill, M., Halpin, J., and Halpin, R. (1993). How persons with visual impairments explore novel spaces: Strategies of good and poor performers. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness October, 295–301.
Hollins, M. (1986). Haptic mental rotation: more consistent in blind subjects? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 80, 950–952.
Hollyfield, R.L., and Foulke, E. (1983). The spatial cognition of blind pedestrians. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 5, 204–209.
Jacobson, W.H. (1993). The Art and Science of Orientation and Mobility, New York: AFB Press.
Kelly, G.W. (1981). Sonic orientation and navigational aid (SONA). Bulletin of Prosthetics Research 1, 189.
Kitchin, R.M. (1994). Cognitive maps: What are they and why study them? Journal of Environmental Psychology 14,1: 1–19.
Klatzky, R.L., Golledge, R.G., Loomis, J.M., Cicinelli, J.G., and Pellegrino, J.W. (1994). Performance of blind and sighted in spatial tasks. Journal of Vision Impairment and Blindness (in press).
Klatzky, R.L., Loomis, J.M., Golledge, R.G., Cicinelli, J.G., Doherty, S., and Pellegrino, J.W. (1990). Acquisition of Route and Survey knowledge in the absence of vision. Journal of Motor Behavior 22,1: 19–43.
Lederman, S.J., Klatzky, R.L., Collins, R., and Wardell, J. (1987). Exploring environments by hand and foot: time based heuristics for encoding distance in movement space. Journal of Environmental Psychology: Human Learning, Memory, and Cognition 13, 606–614.
Leonard, J.A., and Newman, R.C. (1970). Three types of “maps” for blind travel. Ergonomics 13, 165–179.
Lockman, J.J., Rieser, J.J., and Pick, H.L. (1981). Assessing blind travelers’ knowledge of spatial layout. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 7, 321–326.
Lohman, D.F. (1979). Spatial ability: Review and re-analysis of the correlational literature. Aptitude Research Project, Report #8, Stanford University.
Loomis, J.M. (1985). Digital map and navigation system for the visually impaired. Unpublished manuscript. Department of Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara.
Loomis, J.M., Hebert, C. and Cicinelli J.G. (1990). Active localization of virtual sounds. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 88,4: 1757–1764.
Loomis, J.M., Golledge, R.G., Klatzky, R.L., Speigle, J.M., and Tietz, J. (1994). Personal guidance system for the visually impaired. In Proceedings of the First Annual International ACM/SIGCAPH Conference on Assistive Technologies, Marina Del Rey, California, October 31–November 1.
Loomis, J.M., Klatzky, R.L., Golledge, R.G., Cicinelli, J.G., Pellegrino, J.W., and Fry, P.A. (1993). Non-visual navigation by blind and sighted: Assessment of path integration ability. Journal of Experimental Psychology, General 122,1: 73–91.
Lund, F.H.(1930). Physical asymmetries and disorientation. American Journal of Psychology 42, 51–62.
Marmor, G.S., and Zabeck, L.A. (1976). Mental rotation by the blind: does mental rotation depend on visual imagery? Journal of Environmental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2, 515–521.
McGee, M.G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin 86(5), 889–918.
Mittelstaedt, H., and Mittelstaedt, M-L. (1982). Homing by path integration. In Avian navigation (Papi and Wallraff, eds.). Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 290–297.
Moore, G.T., and Golledge, R.G. (1976). Environmental knowing: Concepts and theories. In Environmental knowing (G.T. Moore and R.G. Golledge, eds.). Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, pp. 3–24.
Müller, M., and Wehner, R. (1988). Path integration in desert ants, Cataglyphis Fortis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 85, 5287–5290.
Olivier, D. (1970). Metric for comparison of multidimensional scaling. Unpublished manuscript.
Parkes, D., and Dear, R. (1990). NOMAD: An interacting audio-tactile graphics interpreter. Reference manual, Version 2.0. Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Newcastle, NSW, Australia.
Passini, R., Dupre, A., and Langlois, C. (1986). Spatial mobility of the visually handicapped active person: A descriptive study. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 80(8), 904–907.
Passini, R., Proulx, G., and Rainville, C. (1990). The spatio-cognitive abilities of the visually impaired population. Environment and Behavior 22(1), 91–118.
Preiser, W.F.E. (1985). A combined tactile/electronic guidance system for visually impaired persons in indoor and outdoor spaces. Preconference proceedings of the International Conference on Building Use and Safety Technology, pp. 49–53.
Rieser, J.J., Guth, D.A., and Hill, E.W. (1982). Mental processes mediating independent travel: Implications for orientation and mobility. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 76(6), 213–218.
Rieser, J.J., Guth, D.A., and Hill, E.W. (1986). Sensitivity to perspective structure while walking without vision. Perception 15, 173–188.
Rieser, J.J., Lockman, J.J., and Pick, H.L. Jr. (1980). The role of visual experience in the mental representation of spatial layout. Perception and Psychophysics 28(3), 185–190.
Rouse, D.L. and Worchel, P. (1955). Veering tendency in the blind. The New Outlook for the Blind 4, 115–119.
Schaeffer, A.A. (1928). Spiral movement in men. Journal of Morphology 45, 293–298.
Strelow, E.R. (1985). What is needed for a theory of mobility: Direct perception and cognitive maps’lessons from the blind. Psychological Review 92(2), 226–248.
Strelow, E.R., and Brabyn, J.A. (1982). Locomotion of the blind controlled by natural sound cues. Perception 11, 635–640.
Tatham, A.F., and Dodds, A.G. (1988). Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Maps and Graphics for Visually Handicapped People. Nottingham, England: University of Nottingham.
Tellevik, J.M. (1992). Influence of spatial exploration patterns of cognitive mapping by blindfolded sighted persons. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 92, 221–224.
Tolman, E.C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review 55, 189–208.
von Saint Paul, U. (1982). Do geese use path integration for walking home? In Avian navigation (F. Papi and H.G. Wallraff, eds.), Berlin: Springer-Verlag, pp. 298–306.
von Senden, S.M. (1932). Space and Sight: The Perception of Space and Shape by the Congenitally Blind Before and After Operation, Glencoe, II: The Free Press
von Senden, M. (1960). Space and sight. (Translated from the 1932 edition by P. Heath). Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Warren, D.H. (1978). Perception by the blind. In Handbook of Perception, Volume 10 (E. Carterett and N. Friedmann, eds.). New York: Academic Press, pp. 65–86.
Warren, D.H., and Kocon, J.A. (1974). Factors in the successful mobility of the blind. American Foundation for the Blind Research Bulletin 28, 191–218.
Warren, D.H., and Strelow, E.R. (eds.) (1985). Electronic spatial sensing for the blind-contributions from perception, rehabilitation, and computer vision. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
Welsh, R.L., and Blasch, B.B. (eds.) (1980). Foundation of orientation and mobility, New York: American Foundation for the Blind.
Wiedel, J. (ed.) (1983). Proceedings of the First International Conference on Maps and Graphics for the Visually Impaired. Washington, D.C.: The Association of American Geographers.
Worchel, P. (1951). Space perception and orientation in the blind. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 65, 1–27 (Whole No. 332).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Golledge, R.G., Klatzky, R.L., Loomis, J.M. (1996). Cognitive Mapping and Wayfinding by Adults Without Vision. In: Portugali, J. (eds) The Construction of Cognitive Maps. GeoJournal Library, vol 32. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-33485-1_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-585-33485-1_10
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-0-7923-3949-6
Online ISBN: 978-0-585-33485-1
eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive