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Bio-Organic Materials in the Atmosphere and Snow: Measurement and Characterization

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Atmospheric and Aerosol Chemistry

Part of the book series: Topics in Current Chemistry ((TOPCURRCHEM,volume 339))

Abstract

Bio-organic chemicals are ubiquitous in the Earth’s atmosphere and at air-snow interfaces, as well as in aerosols and in clouds. It has been known for centuries that airborne biological matter plays various roles in the transmission of disease in humans and in ecosystems. The implication of chemical compounds of biological origins in cloud condensation and in ice nucleation processes has also been studied during the last few decades, and implications have been suggested in the reduction of visibility, in the influence on oxidative potential of the atmosphere and transformation of compounds in the atmosphere, in the formation of haze, change of snow-ice albedo, in agricultural processes, and bio-hazards and bio-terrorism. In this review we critically examine existing observation data on bio-organic compounds in the atmosphere and in snow. We also review both conventional and cutting-edge analytical techniques and methods for measurement and characterisation of bio-organic compounds and specifically for microbial communities, in the atmosphere and snow. We also explore the link between biological compounds and nucleation processes. Due to increased interest in decreasing emissions of carbon-containing compounds, we also briefly review (in an Appendix) methods and techniques that are currently deployed for bio-organic remediation.

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Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Canadian funding agencies NSERC, CFI and FQRNT for financial support. We are also grateful to Ms. Ornella Cavaliere for proofreading our manuscript. J. Sun acknowledges financial support from the Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences for the “100 Talents” program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

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  1. Departments of Chemistry, Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC, Canada

    P. A. Ariya, G. Kos, R. Mortazavi, E. D. Hudson, V. Kanthasamy, N. Eltouny, J. Sun & C. Wilde

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Appendix

Appendix

1.1 A Brief Review of Mitigation of Atmospheric Bio-organic Compounds

Bioaerosols are not released as a result of human activity to the same extent as other pollutants. However, significant anthropogenic sources include waste treatment, agriculture, food production, paper and wood production and horticulture, as well as municipal composting [163, 164]. Development and deployment of bioaerosol mitigation technologies is very limited due to the lack of regulations governing acceptable bioaerosol emission rates and ambient concentrations [60]. The Republic of Korea has set a maximum allowable total bacterial bioaerosol concentration of 800 CFU m−3 for indoor environments [165]. Licensed “green waste” composting sites in England and Wales are subject to guidelines limiting total fungi and bacteria concentrations to below 1,000 CFU m−3, and Gram-negative bacteria below 300 CFU m−3 at 250 m from the site boundary [163]. However, neither the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) nor the World Health Organization (WHO) has established bioaerosol concentration standards [165] (incineration or biofiltration), but also include UV radiation and ion emission [164, 166, 167]. In industrial settings, the measures in place to control dust and odour emissions will generally remove bioaerosols as well, but some reports indicate that these do not always control the emission of certain pathogens [168]. The above-mentioned pollution control technologies and other techniques can also be applied to treat indoor air. Increased ventilation rates and the use of high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters are popular approaches, but both greatly increase the power requirements of heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Methods such as thermal degradation or ESP could be more energy efficient, but work needs to be done to determine the best way to implement these technologies into HVAC systems [60, 169].

VOCs are one class of compounds that can be emitted from biogenic or anthropogenic sources. Among anthropogenic activities, the transport and industrial sectors and biomass burning are responsible for most of the global anthropogenic VOCs emissions. Their detrimental impact on the atmosphere is multifaceted, as they are readily oxidised by OH radical and through a series of reactions allowing the formation of tropospheric ozone, a main component of photochemical smog plaguing the air quality of many urban cities and causing increased premature deaths [170]. Exposure to benzene, an aromatic compound, has been directly linked to leukaemia [171]. Consequently, a variety of control technologies to prevent the release of VOC by degradation or recovery have been developed. Detailed accounts of existing and emerging techniques have been reviewed [172, 173].

Destruction techniques aim at oxidizing the parent VOC into CO2 and H2O. High removal efficiencies are obtained by common techniques like thermal and catalytic oxidation, which can achieve more than 95% removal of VOCs [173]. Destruction can also be achieved by radical formation, using photo-catalysts like TiO2, for example. However, thermal processes have a high energy demand due to the high temperature required for oxidation. In addition, both thermal- and photocatalytic-based oxidation involve the formation of toxic by-products and can reduce a catalyst’s lifetime due to poisoning [174–176]. Recovery techniques involve two steps. First a transfer of the pollutants from the air stream to another medium and second the recovery of the pollutants. In adsorption-based techniques the pollutant is separated from the polluted stream by binding chemically or physically to the adsorbent upon exposure. The pollutant is then collected during the regeneration of the saturated adsorbent; details on various regeneration methods are reported in the literature [177–179]. So far the two leading materials in adsorption have been activated carbon for its high surface area and zeolites for their thermal stability and size selective properties. New materials, however, are being developed to overcome some of the challenges that face activated carbon and zeolites such as humidity sensitivity, flammability during regeneration and cost [172]. In the context of VOC remediation, mesoporous transition metal oxides, ordered mesoporous silica (OMS) and carbon nanotubes (CNT) can overcome some of the challenges faced by the traditional adsorbents [172, 180]. However, the complexity and inherent formation of wastes during the large-scale synthesis of these new materials, particularly OMS and CNT, is a subject of environmental concern for large scale production [180–182]. Recovery by absorption is based on transferring the gaseous pollutants to a liquid. The system is limited to highly soluble gases [173]. Investigations on phthalates as absorbents for VOCS have recently been reported [183]. Recovery by membranes is based on separation due to a concentration gradient, pressure differential and electrochemical potential [173]. Separation by membranes is selective, which can limit its efficiency since VOCs are made up of a mixture of gases. Improving membranes involves developing materials that can separate a range of organic compounds [173]. VOCs can also be separated by condensation techniques where the VOCs are cooled to low temperatures. The various remediation techniques for VOCs are summarised in Table 6.

Table 6 Industrial pollution control for large stationary point-source emissions of carbonaceous aerosols, including those applicable to bioaerosols
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1.2 Simultaneous Mitigation of Multiple Air Pollutants

While mitigation options for VOCs and bioaerosols were considered separately here, the implementation of some pollution mitigation options to target one pollutant may have an effect on the amount of another pollutant released. In many cases, the implementation of some mitigation options will reduce the emission rates of several pollutants. However, some process modifications and material substitutions lead to trade-offs, limiting the production of one pollutant while increasing that of another. For example, operating a combustion process at a higher temperature with excess oxygen will generally improve combustion efficiency, reducing the amount of carbonaceous aerosols and VOCs produced, but will increase the quantity of NO x produced.

1.3 Future Anthropogenic Emission Projections

A wide variety of different pollution control approaches exist and in many cases emissions of pollutants such as VOCs and bioaerosols from anthropogenic sources can be effectively reduced to zero. Pollution control technologies are constantly being refined and adapted to more and more emission sources that release some of the above-mentioned pollutants.

Fig. 2
figure 04612

The simulation with Phillips’ Scheme in the condensation and immersion freezing modes. (a) Spatial and temporal evolution of the primary ice nucleation rate (L−1 s−1) (shaded area) and the ice splinter production rate (L−1 s−1) (solid lines). (b) Spatial and temporal evolution of ice particles (L−1) (shaded area) and bacteria-containing ice particles (L−1) (solid lines). Courtesy of Sun et al. (Personal Communication, 2013)

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Fig. 3
figure 04613

Spatial and temporal evolution of the primary ice nucleation rate (L−1 s−1) (shaded area) and the ice splinter production rate (L−1 s−1) (solid lines) for the simulation with Chen’s scheme in the immersion freezing mode. (a) Spatial and temporal evolution of the primary ice nucleation rate (L−1 s−1) (shaded area) and the ice splinter production rate (L−1 s−1) (solid lines). (b) Spatial and temporal evolution of ice particles (L−1) (shaded area) and bacteria-containing ice particles (L−1) (solid lines). Courtesy of Sun et al. (Personal Communication, 2013)

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Ariya, P.A. et al. (2013). Bio-Organic Materials in the Atmosphere and Snow: Measurement and Characterization. In: McNeill, V., Ariya, P. (eds) Atmospheric and Aerosol Chemistry. Topics in Current Chemistry, vol 339. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/128_2013_461

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