Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Bystander Sexism in the Intergroup Context: The Impact of Cat-calls on Women’s Reactions Towards Men

  • Original Article
  • Published:
Sex Roles Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Despite the fact that sexism is an inherently intergroup phenomenon, women’s group-level responses to sexism have received relatively little empirical attention. We examine the intergroup reactions experienced by 114 female students at a U.S. university in New England who imagined being a bystander to a sexist cat-call remark or control greeting. Results indicate that women experienced greater negative intergroup emotions and motivations towards the outgroup of men after overhearing the cat-call remark. Further, the experience of group-based anger mediated the relationship between the effect of study condition on the motivation to move against, or oppose, men. Results indicate that bystanders can be affected by sexism and highlights how the collective groups of men and women can be implicated in individual instances of sexism.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Barrett, L. F., & Swim, J. K. (1996). Appraisals of prejudice and discrimination. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 11–36). San Diego: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowman, C. G. (1993). Street harassment and the informal ghettoization of women. Harvard Law Review, 106, 517–580.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butz, D. A., & Plant, E. A. (2006). Perceiving outgroup members as unresponsive: Implications for approach-related emotions, intentions, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 1066–1079.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cameron, J. E. (2001). Social identity, modern sexism, and perceptions of personal and group discrimination by women and men. Sex Roles, 45, 743–766.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cottrell, C. A., & Neuberg, S. L. (2005). Different emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to “prejudice”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 770–789.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crisp, R. J., Heuston, S., Farr, M. J., & Turner, R. N. (2007). Seeing red or feeling blue: Differentiated intergroup emotions and ingroup identification in soccer fans. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 9–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crocker, J., Voelkl, K., Testa, M., & Major, B. (1991). Social stigma: The affective consequences of attributional ambiguity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 218–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crosby, F. (1984). The denial of personal discrimination. American Behavioral Scientist, 27, 371–386.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fairchild, K., & Rudman, L. A. (2008). Everyday stranger harassment and women’s objectification. Social Justice Research, 21, 338–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, L. F. (1993). Sexual harassment: Violence against women in the workplace. American Psychologist, 48, 1070–1076.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fitzgerald, L. W., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C. L., Gelfand, M. J., & Magley, V. J. (1997). Antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 578–589.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frijda, N. H. (1986). The emotions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gardner, C. B. (1980). Passing by: Street remarks, address rights, and the urban female. Sociological Inquiry, 50, 328–356.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Henley, N. (1977). Body politics: Power, sex, and nonverbal communication. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hitlan, R. T., Schneider, K. T., & Walsh, B. M. (2006). Upsetting behavior: Reactions to personal and bystander sexual harassment experiences. Sex Roles, 55, 187–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hitlan, R. T., Pryor, J. B., Hesson-McInnis, M. S., & Olson, M. (2009). Antecedents of gender harassment: An analysis of person and situation factors. Sex Roles, 61, 794–807.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hyers, L. L. (2007). Resisting prejudice every day: Exploring women’s assertive responses to anti-black racism, anti-Semitism, heterosexism, and sexism. Sex Roles, 56, 1–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Inman, M. L., & Baron, R. S. (1996). Influence of prototypes on perceptions of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 727–739.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuhn, M. H., & McPartland, T. S. (1954). An empirical investigation of self-attitudes. American Sociological Review, 19, 68–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, I. C., Pratto, F., & Li, M. C. (2007). Social relationships and sexism in the United States and Taiwan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 595–612.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maass, A., Cadinu, M., Guarnieri, G., & Grasselli, A. (2003). Sexual harassment under social identity threat: The computer harassment paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 853–870.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (Eds.). (2002). From prejudice to intergroup emotions: Differentiated reactions to social groups. New York: Psychology Press.

  • Mackie, D. M., Devos, T., & Smith, E. R. (2000). Intergroup emotions: Explaining offensive action tendencies in an intergroup context. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 602–616.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maitner, A. T., Mackie, D. M., & Smith, E. R. (2006). Evidence for the regulatory function of intergroup emotion: Emotional consequences of implemented or impeded intergroup action tendencies. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 720–728.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Major, B., Quinton, W. J., & Schmader, T. (2003). Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: Impact of group identification and situational ambiguity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 220–231.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCoy, S. K., & Major, B. (2003). Group identification moderates emotional responses to perceived prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1005–1017.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., Zebel, S., & Fischer, A. H. (2007). The past and the pending: The antecedents and consequences of group-based anger in historically and currently disadvantaged groups. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 41–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pryor, J. B., & Whalen, N. J. (1997). A typology of sexual harassment: Characteristics of harassers and the social circumstances under which sexual harassment occurs. In W. O’Donohue (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Theory, research, and treatment (pp. 129–151). Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudman, L. A. (1999). Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: The hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1004–1010.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Samoluk, S. B., & Pretty, G. M. H. (1994). The impact of sexual harassment simulations on women’s thoughts and feelings. Sex Roles, 30, 679–699.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., & Postmes, T. (2003). Women’s emotional responses to the pervasiveness of gender discrimination. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 297–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. T., Swann, S., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1997). Job-related and psychological effects of sexual harassment in the workplace: Empirical evidence from two organizations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 401–415.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schneider, K. T., Tomaka, J., & Palacios, R. (2001). Women’s cognitive, affective, and physiological reactions to a male coworker’s sexist behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31, 1995–2018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sechrist, G. B., & Delmar, C. (2009). When do men and women make attributions to gender discrimination? The role of discrimination source. Sex Roles, 61, 607–620.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seger, C. R., Smith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2009). Subtle activation of a social categorization triggers group-level emotions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 460–467.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shelton, J. N., & Stewart, R. E. (2004). Confronting perpetrators of prejudice: The inhibitory effects of social costs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 28, 215–223.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. R. (1993). Social identity and social emotions: Toward new conceptualizations of prejudice. In D. M. Mackie & D. L. Hamilton (Eds.), Affect, cognition, and stereotyping: Interactive processes in group perception (pp. 297–315). San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. R. (1999). Affective and cognitive implications of a group becoming part of the self: New models of prejudice and of the self-concept. In D. Abrams & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition (pp. 183–196). Oxford: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E. R., Seger, C. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2007). Can emotions be truly group level? Evidence regarding four conceptual criteria. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 431–446.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (1999). Excuse me—What did you say?!: Women’s public and private responses to sexist remarks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 68–88.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., & Hyers, L. L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 37–60). San Diego: Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of inter-group behavior. In S. Worchel & L. W. Austin (Eds.), Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Chigago: Nelson-Hall.

    Google Scholar 

  • Terpstra, D. E., & Baker, D. D. (1986). A framework for the study of sexual harassment. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 7, 17–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. New York: Blackwell.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walsh, B. M., & Hitlan, R. T. (2007). Organizational stress: Investigating the impact of dual harassment experiences on appraisal and outcomes. North American Journal of Psychology, 9, 331–346.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woodzicka, J. A., & LaFrance, M. (2001). Real versus imagined gender harassment. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 15–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wright, S. C., Taylor, D. M., & Moghaddam, F. M. (1990). Responding to membership in a disadvantaged group: From acceptance to collective protest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 994–1003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yzerbyt, V., Dumont, M., Wigboldus, D., & Gordijn, E. (2003). I feel for us: The impact of categorization and identification on emotions and action tendencies. British Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 533–549.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zuckerman, M., & Lubin, B. (1965). Manual for the multiple affect adjective checklist. San Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This work is based on the master’s thesis of the first author. We thank Sjoerd Pennekamp for his helpful comments on a previous draft of this manuscript, Jack Dovidio and Janet Barnes-Farrell for their guidance as thesis committee members, and Lindsay Aronheim, Matthew Barry, Daniel Butler, Elizabeth Fabrizi, Randi Ferguson, Nick Frogley, and Sarah Pennington for their help with data collection. Portions of this research were presented at the 6th and 7th Annual Meetings of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Connecticut, 406 Babbidge Rd., Storrs, CT, 06269, USA

    Stephenie R. Chaudoir & Diane M. Quinn

  2. Bradley University, 1501 W. Bradley Ave, Peoria, IL, 61625, USA

    Stephenie R. Chaudoir

Authors
  1. Stephenie R. Chaudoir
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Diane M. Quinn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephenie R. Chaudoir.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Chaudoir, S.R., Quinn, D.M. Bystander Sexism in the Intergroup Context: The Impact of Cat-calls on Women’s Reactions Towards Men. Sex Roles 62, 623–634 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9735-0

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9735-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation