Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Mortality rates of wild boar Sus scrofa L. in central Europe

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
European Journal of Wildlife Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In many parts of Europe, wild boar Sus scrofa population increase, and thus, high densities and dispersal into new areas are accompanied by economic problems. Due to many factors like insufficient hunting strategies as well as underestimation of population densities and reproduction rates, harvest rates seem to be insufficient. Thus, we calculated mortality rates of several wild boar populations from 1998 to 2009, to show the efficiency of hunting within several studies distributed over eight European states. For calculating mortality rates, the daily probability of survival of radio telemetrically observed wild boar was analysed according to Mayfield (Wilson Bull 73:255-261, 1961) and with survival analysis in R for three age classes (0, 1, ≥2 years) and both sexes. The mortality rates of wild boar per annum, especially piglets, were comparably low (about 0.5 for piglets and similar for total population). About three third of all observed animals survived at least until the next period of reproduction. Mortality rates differed between some study areas, the sexes and age classes. The sex ratio of the shot piglets equals the sex ratio of captured piglets; there seems to be no sex-biased hunting in this age class, but in an older age. Shooting was the main cause of death; only very few animals died by natural causes, e.g. diseases. The comparative analysis of all studies reflects a low mortality of wild boar in highly productive populations. Our results certified the findings of several studies that predation, natural mortality, and road mortality have only small impact on wild boar populations, whereas especially, nutrition or hunting are mainly decisive. Assuming net reproduction rates of more than 200 % according to literature data, our results indicate that harvest rates are not sufficient at our study sites. In all our studies, mortality rates and, thus, harvest rates are less than the assumed total net reproduction. Especially, the harvest rate of piglets seems to be insufficient. Thus, the population will increase further. High reproduction has to be counteracted by regulating mainly the reproductive animals. For regulating a population, combined and effective hunting methods have to be conducted to harvest at least the net reproduction. Thus, we recommend higher hunting rates of piglets (80 % of the offspring should be harvested) and of adult females. Intensified hunting of piglets by drive hunts and at an early age as well as intensified single hunt on adult females might help regulating wild boar populations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baubet E, Servanty S, Brandt S (2009) Tagging piglets at the farrowing nest in the wild: some preliminary guidelines. Acta Silv Lign Hung 5:159–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Bieber C, Ruf T (2005) Population dynamics in wild boar Sus scrofa: ecology, elasticity of growth rate and implications for the management of pulsed resource consumers. J Appl Ecol 42:1203–1213

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boitani L, Trapanese P, Mattei L (1995) Demographic patterns of a wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) population in Tuscany, Italy. IBEX J Mt Ecol 3:197–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Boutin S (1990) Food supplementation experiments with terrestrial vertebrates: patterns, problems, and the future. Can J Zool 68:203–220

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Braga C, Alexandre N, Fernández-Llario P, Santos P (2010) Wild boar (Sus scrofa) harvesting using the espera hunting method: side effects and management implications. Eur J Wildl Res 56:465–469

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Briedermann L (1971) Zur Reproduktion des Schwarzwildes in der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Tag-Ber dt Akad Landwirtsch-Wiss Berlin 113:169–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Briedermann L (1977) Jagdmethoden beim Schwarzwild und ihre Effektivität. Beitr Jagd- u Wildforschung 10:139–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Briedermann L (1990) Schwarzwild. Neumann-Neudamm, Melsungen

  • Briedermann L, Dittrich G, Goretzki J, Stubbe C, Horstmann H-D, Schreiber R, Klier E, Siefke A, Mehlitz S (1986) Entwicklung der Schalenwildbestände in der DDR und Möglichkeiten der Bestandsregulierung. Beitr Jagd- u Wildforschung 14:16–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Cahill S, Llimona F (2004) Demographics of a wild boar Sus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 population in a metropolitan park in Barcelona. In: Fonseca C, Herrero J, Luis A, Soares AMVM (eds) Wild boar research 2002. A selection and edited papers from the “4th International Wild Boar Symposium” Lousa, Portugal, pp. 37–52

  • Cahill S, Llimona F, Gràcia J (2003) Spacing and nocturnal activity of wild boar Sus scrofa in a Mediterranean metropolitan park. Wildl Biol 9(Suppl):3–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Calenge C, Maillard D, Vassant J, Brandt S (2002) Summer and hunting season home ranges of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in two habitats in France. Game Wildl Sci 19:281–301

    Google Scholar 

  • Caley P, Ottley B (1995) The effectiveness of hunting dogs for removing feral pigs (Sus scrofa). Wildl Res 22:147–154

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cellina S (2008) Effects of supplemental feeding on the body condition and reproductive state of wild boar Sus scrofa in Luxembourg. PhD. University of Sussex

  • Durio P, Gallo Orsi U, Macchi E, Perrone A (1995) Structure and monthly birth distribution of a wild boar population living in mountainous environment. IBEX J Mt Ecol 3:202–203

    Google Scholar 

  • Ebert C, Huckschlag D, Schulz HK, Hohmann U (2010) Can hair traps sample wild boar (Sus scrofa) randomly for the purpose of non-invasive population estimation? Eur J Wildl Res 56:583–590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ebert C, Kolodziej K, Schikora TF, Schulz H, Hohmann U (2009) Is non-invasive genetic population estimation via faeces sampling feasible for abundant mammals with low defecation rates? A pilot study on free ranging wild boar (Sus scrofa) in South-West Germany. Acta Silv Lign Hung 5:167–177

    Google Scholar 

  • Fenati M, Monaco A, Guberti V (2008) Efficiency and safety of xylazine and tiletamine/zolazepam to immobilize captured wild boars (Sus scrofa L. 1758): analysis of field results. Eur J Wildl Res 54:269–274

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Llario P, Carranza J, Mateos-Quesada P (1999) Sex allocation in a polygynous mammal with large litter size: the wild boar. Anim Behav 58:1079–1084

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fernández-Llario P, Mateos-Quesada P (2003) Population structure of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) in two Mediterranean habitats in the western Iberian Peninsula. Folia Zool 52:143–148

    Google Scholar 

  • Fruzinski B, Labudzki L (2002) Management of wild boar in Poland. Z Jagdwiss 48(Suppl):201–207

    Google Scholar 

  • Garzon-Heydt P (1992) Study of a population of wild boar Sus scrofa castilianus Thomas, 1912 in Spain, based on hunting data. In: Bobek B, Perzanowski K, Regelin W (eds) Global trends in wildlife management. 18th IUGB Congress Krakow. Swiat Press, Krakow-Warszawa. pp. 489–492

  • Geisser H, Reyer H-U (2005) The influence of food and temperature on population density of wild boar Sus scrofa in the Thurgau (Switzerland). J Zool, Lond 267:89–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Genov PW, Massei G, Kostova W (1994) Die Nutzung des Wildschweins (Sus scrofa) in Europa in Theorie und Praxis. Z Jagdwiss 40:263–267

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerard JF, Cargnelutti B, Spitz F, Valet G, Sardin T (1991) Habitat use of wild boar in a French agroecosystem from late winter to early summer. Acta Theriol 36:119–129

    Google Scholar 

  • Gethöffer F, Sodeikat G, Pohlmeyer K (2007) Reproductive parameters of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in three different parts of Germany. Eur J Wildl Res 53:287–297

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gortázar C, Ferroglio E, Höfle U, Frölich K, Vicente J (2007) Diseases shared between wildlife and livestock: a European perspective. Eur J Wildl Res 53:241–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Groot Bruinderink GWTA, Hazebroek E (1996) Wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa L.) rooting and forest regeneration on podzolic soils in the Netherlands. For Ecol Manage 88:71–80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Happ N (2002) Hege und Bejagung des Schwarzwildes. Franckh-Kosmos Verlags-GmbH & Co., Stuttgart

    Google Scholar 

  • Hebeisen C, Fattebert J, Baubet E, Fischer C (2008) Estimating wild boar (Sus scrofa) abundance and density using capture–resights in Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. Eur J Wildl Res 54:391–401

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrero J, García-Serrano A, García-Gonzáles R (1995) Wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) hunting in south-western Pyrenees (Spain): preliminary data. IBEX J Mt Ecol 3:228–229

    Google Scholar 

  • Jędrzejewski W, Jędrzejewska B, Okarma H, Schmidt K, Zub K, Musiani M (2000) Prey selection and predation by wolves in Białowieża Primeval Forest, Poland. J Mammal 81:197–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Kanzaki N, Perzanowski K (1997) The potential role of wolf predation in regulating wild boar population in Bieszczady, Poland. Wildl Conserv Japan 2:205–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Kenward RE (2001) A manual for wildlife radio tagging. Academic, San Diego

    Google Scholar 

  • Keuling O (2009) Managing Wild Boar - Considerations for wild boar management based on game biology data. PhD thesis. Dresden University of Technology. 23 p

  • Keuling O, Lauterbach K, Stier N, Roth M (2010) Hunter feedback of individually marked wild boar Sus scrofa L.: dispersal and efficiency of hunting in northeastern Germany. Eur J Wildl Res 56:159–167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keuling O, Stier N, Roth M (2008a) Annual and seasonal space use of different age classes of female wild boar Sus scrofa L. Eur J Wildl Res 54:403–412

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keuling O, Stier N, Roth M (2008b) How does hunting influence activity and space use in wild boar Sus scrofa. Eur J Wildl Res 54:729–737

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keuling O, Stier N, Roth M (2009) Commuting, shifting or remaining? Different spatial usage patterns of wild boar Sus scrofa L. in forest and field crops during summer. Mamm Biol 74:145–152

    Google Scholar 

  • Labudzki L, Wlazelko M (1991) Saisonale Dynamik der vom Schwarzwild im Feldanbau verursachten Schäden im Forschungsgebiet Zielonka. Z Jagdwiss 37:250–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Liebl T, Elliger A, Linderoth P (2005) Aufwand und Erfolg der Schwarzwildjagd in einem stadtnahen Gebiet. WFS-Mitteilungen:1–5

  • Martys MF (1982) Gehegebeobachtungen zur Geburts- und Reproduktionsbiologie des Europäischen Wildschweins (Sus scrofa L.). Z Säugetierkunde 47:100–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Massolo A, Mazzoni della Stella R (2006) Population structure variations of wild boar Sus scrofa in central Italy. Ital J Zool 73:137–144

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayfield H (1961) Nesting success calculated from exposure. Wilson Bull 73:255–261

    Google Scholar 

  • Mazzoni della Stella R, Calvoi F, Burrini L (1995) The wild boar management in a province of Central Italy. IBEX J Mt Ecol 3:213–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner-Gulland EJ, Coulson T, Clutton-Brock TH (2004) Sex differences and data quality as determinants of income from hunting red deer Cervus elaphus. Wildl Biol 10:187–201

    Google Scholar 

  • Milner JM, Nilsen EB, Andreassen HP (2007) Demographic side effects of selective hunting in ungulates and carnivores. Conserv Biol 21:36–47

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monaco A, Carnevali L (2004) Comparing efficiency between ear tags transmitters vs radiocollars in radiotracked wild boar. 5th International Wild Boar and Suidae Symposium Cracow

  • Moretti M (1995) Birth distribution, structure and dynamics of a hunted mountain population of wild boars (Sus scrofa L.), Ticino, Switzerland. IBEX J Mt Ecol 3:192–196

    Google Scholar 

  • Nàhlik A, Sándor G (2003) Birth rate and offspring survival in a free-ranging wild boar Sus scrofa population. Wildl Biol 9(Suppl):37–42

    Google Scholar 

  • Nores C, Llaneza L, Álvares MA (2008) Wild boar (Sus scrofa) mortality by hunting and wolf (Canis lupus) predation. An example in Northern Spain. Wildl Biol 14:44–51

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Okarma H, Jedrzejewska B, Jedrzejewski W, Krasinski ZA, Milkowski L (1995) The roles of predation, snow cower, acorn crop and man related factors on ungulate mortality in Bialowieza Primeval Forest, Poland. Acta Theriol 40:197–217

    Google Scholar 

  • Peris S, Baquedano R, Sánchez A, Pescador M (2005) Mortalidad del jabalí (Sus scrofa) en carreteras de la provincia de Salamanca (NO de España): ¿Influencia de su comportamiento social? Galemys 17:13–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Podgórski T, Baś G, Jędrzejewska B, Sönnichsen L, Śnieżko S, Jędrzejewski W, Okarma H (2013) Spatiotemporal behavioral plasticity of wild boar (Sus scrofa) under contrasting conditions of human pressure: primeval forest and metropolitan area. J Mammal 94:109–119

    Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team (2012) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, R 2.15.2 ed. Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. Available at http://www.R-project.org/

  • Reimoser F, Wildauer L, Duscher A, Schreiber B, Zink R (2009) Monitoring & Wildmanagement von Wildtieren im Nationalpark Neusiedlersee-Seewinkel. Endbericht. Modul B, Teil Fiwi. authorized, Wien, 122 p

  • Saether BE (1997) Environmental stochasticity and population dynamics of large herbivores: a search for mechanisms. TREE 12:143–149

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saunders G (1993) The demography of Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) in Kosciusko National Park, New South Wales. Wildl Res 20:559–569

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schley L, Dufrêne M, Krier A, Frantz AC (2008) Patterns of crop damage by wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Luxembourg over a 10-year period. Eur J Wildl Res 54:589–599

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scillitani L, Monaco A, Toso S (2010) Do intensive drive hunts affect wild boar (Sus scrofa) spatial behaviour in Italy? Some evidences and management implications. Eur J Wildl Res 56:307–318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Servanty S (2008) Dynamique d’une population chassée de sanglier (Sus scrofa scrofa) en milieu forestier. PhD. Univerité Claude Bernard

  • Servanty S, Gaillard J-M, Togo C, Lebreton J-D, Baubet E, Klein F (2005) Population management based on incomplete data: modelling the case of wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) in France. In: Pohlmeyer KV (ed). XXVIIth Congress of IUGB, 28. Aug.-3. Sept. Extended abstracts Hanover, Germany, 256–257

  • Servanty S, Gaillard JM, Ronchi F, Focardi S, Baubet E, Giménez O (2011) Influence of harvesting pressure on demographic tactics: implications for wildlife management. J Appl Ecol 48:835–843

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Servanty S, Gaillard JM, Toïgo C, Brandt S, Baubet E (2009) Pulsed resources and climate-induced variation in the reproductive traits of wild boar under high hunting pressure. J Anim Ecol 78:1278–1290

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sodeikat G, Papendiek J, Richter O, Söndgerath D, Pohlmeyer K (2005) Modelling population dynamics of wild boar (Sus scrofa) in Lower Saxony, Germany. In: Pohlmeyer KV (ed). XXVIIth Congress of IUGB, 28. Aug.-3. Sept. Extended abstracts Hanover, Germany, 488-489

  • Sodeikat G, Pohlmeyer K (2007) Impact of drive hunts on daytime resting site areas of wild boar family groups (Sus scrofa L.). Wildl Biol Pract 3:28–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stubbe W, Stubbe M (1977) Vergleichende Beiträge zur Reproduktions- und Geburtsbiologie von Wild- und Hausschwein—Sus scrofa L., 1758. Beitr Jagd- u Wildforschung 10:153–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Therneau T (2012) A Package for Survival Analysis in S. R package version 2.37-2. Available at http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=survival>. Accessed 20 Nov 2012

  • Thurfjell H, Ball JP, Åhlén P-A, Kornacher P, Dettki H, Sjöberg K (2009) Habitat use and spatial patterns of wild boar Sus scrofa (L.): agricultural fields and edges. Eur J Wildl Res 55:517–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toïgo C, Servanty S, Gaillard JM, Brandt S, Baubet E (2008) Disentangling natural fom hunting mortality in an intensively hunted wild boar population. J Wildl Manage 72:1532–1539

    Google Scholar 

  • Tolon V, Dray S, Loison A, Zeileis A, Fischer C, Baubet E (2009) Responding to spatial and temporal variations in predation risk: space use of a game species in a changing landscape of fear. Can J Zool 87:1129–1137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ueda G, Kanzaki N (2005) Wild boar hunters profile in Shimane Prefecture, western Japan. Wildl Biol Pract 1:146–151

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all companies supporting the several studies. We would also like to thank the two anonymous reviewers and the editor for the help on an earlier draft of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Terrestrial and Aquatic Wildlife Research, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173, Hannover, Germany

    Oliver Keuling, Katrin Ronnenberg & Gunter Sodeikat

  2. CNERA Cervidés-Sangliers, Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Avenue de Wagram 85 bis, 75017, Paris, France

    Eric Baubet

  3. Research Institute of Wildlife Ecology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Savoyenstraße 1, 1160, Vienna, Austria

    Andreas Duscher

  4. Research Institute for Forest Ecology and Forestry, Hauptstraße 16, 67705, Trippstadt, Germany

    Cornelia Ebert

  5. hepia, Filière Gestion de la Nature, 150 route de Presinge, 1254, Jussy, Switzerland

    Claude Fischer

  6. National Wildlife Institute, Via Cà Formacetta, 9-40064, Ozzano dell’Emilia, Bologna, Italy

    Andrea Monaco

  7. Mammal Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Waszkiewicza 1c, 17-230, Białowieża, Poland

    Tomasz Podgórski

  8. Laboratoire Faune sauvage et Cynégétique, Département de l’étude du milieu naturel et agricole, Service Public de Wallonie, avenue Maréchal Juin 23, 5030, Gembloux, Belgium

    Céline Prevot

  9. Institute of Forest Botany and Forest Zoology, Dresden University of Technology, Pienner Str. 7, 01737, Tharandt, Germany

    Norman Stier

  10. Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden

    Henrik Thurfjell

Authors
  1. Oliver Keuling
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Eric Baubet
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Andreas Duscher
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Cornelia Ebert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Claude Fischer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Andrea Monaco
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Tomasz Podgórski
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Céline Prevot
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Katrin Ronnenberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Gunter Sodeikat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Norman Stier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Henrik Thurfjell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Oliver Keuling.

Additional information

Communicated by C. Gortázar

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM 1

Location of the study areas in Europe (JPEG 771 kb)

ESM 2

Output of the linear regression (PDF 24.2 kb)

ESM 3

Output of the non-parametric survival analysis with censoring (PDF 31.5 kb)

ESM 4

Trends of hunting bag statistics from different European countries (a few examples) and Japan (PDF 97.9 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Keuling, O., Baubet, E., Duscher, A. et al. Mortality rates of wild boar Sus scrofa L. in central Europe. Eur J Wildl Res 59, 805–814 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-013-0733-8

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-013-0733-8

Keywords

Search

Navigation